ALLAMA IQBAL’S PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, ALLAHABAD, 1930
The Fourteen Points of the Quaid-e-Azam created a new political consciousness among the Indian Muslims. The Nehru Report left no doubt in their minds that the Hindus intended to dominate them, with the ultimate goal of eliminating the Muslims as a separate entity.
The annual session of the All-India Muslim League, held in Allahabad in 1930, was presided over by Allama Iqbal. By that time Iqbal had emerged as a great poet, philosopher, and thinker. He believed that Hindus and Muslims were two distinct nations which could never become one. Expressing these thoughts and views while delivering a speech in Allahabad, he was the first to give voice to the demand for a Muslim homeland.
“It is my wish that the Punjab, the Frontier Province, Sindh, and Balochistan be combined so as to make one state. . . . The setting up of a North Western Muslim state [of the entire subcontinent] is the destiny of at least the Muslims of the North West regions. . . . India is a continent of human being belonging to different languages and professing different religions. To base a constitution on the conception of a homogeneous India is to prepare her for civil war. I, therefore, demand the formation of a consolidated Muslim state in the best interests of the Muslims of India and Pakistan”.
Round table conferences
First Round Table Conference
The 1930s were years of difficulty and tension. The Simon Commission Report was harshly criticized, and Congress launched a civil disobedience movement in April 1930. This movement was declared illegal, and both Gandhi and Nehru were arrested.
In an effort to avoid confrontation with the Indian political parties, the British Government invited all parties to present their point of view at a Round Table Conference.
The first session of the First Round Table Conference began in London on 12 November 1930. All parties sent representatives except for Congress, which issued an ultimatum saying that it would have nothing to do with any future constitutional discussions unless the Nehru Report was enforced completely.
The delegates included 16 from the United Kingdom, 16 from the Indian states and 57 from British India. The Muslim representatives attended the conference, as the Muslims were not part of the civil disobedience movement. Representing the Muslims were Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Sir Agha Khan, Maulvi Fazal-ul-Haq, Sir Muhammad Shafi, Sir Shah Nawaz, Chaudri Zafarullah, and Ghulam Hussain Hidayatullah. The conference unanimously decided to create a federal system for India. Even the princely states agreed to join an All India Federation.
Eight subcommittees were established to work out agreement on major points of concern: the federal structure, the provincial constitution, franchise, the provinces of Sindh and NWFP, defence services, and minorities. Among the important decisions taken were the following:
A federation would be established comprising the provinces of British India; dyarchy would be abolished in the provinces and responsible government under Indian ministers would be introduced; the separation of Sindh from Bombay was agreed in principle and a committee was to be appointed to deal with the ensuing financial problems; North West Frontier Province was to receive the status of a Governor’s province.
Differences arose concerning the distribution of subjects in the federal system, and the subcommittee on minorities failed to reach agreement about their rights. At the end of the conference, the Muslims declared that no advance would be possible without sufficient safeguards for the Muslims of India.
The First Round Table Conference ended on 19 January 1931. The British Prime Minister explained Government policy toward resolving the Indian constitutional problem and accepted the proposal for responsible governments in the provinces and a federal government at the centre. After the conclusion of the first session, it was generally felt that a second session would be of little use if Congress refused to participate again.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact
After the First Round Table Conference concluded, Congress felt very isolated. When the civil disobedience movement failed, Congress began looking for ways to come to terms with the government. For its part, the British government wanted Congress to attend the Second Round Table Conference, because it would be difficult to implement any constitutional reforms without the largest party in India.
When Lord Irwin invited Gandhi for talks, Gandhi agreed to end the civil disobedience movement with no preconditions. Talks between Gandhi and Irwin continued from 17-19 February 1931, culminating in the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, signed on 5 March 1931.
Under the Pact, Congress agreed to end the civil disobedience movement and to attend the Second Round Table Conference. The government agreed to withdraw all ordinances curbing Congress, to withdraw all notifications and enactments relating to offenses not involving violence, and to release all persons detained during the civil disobedience movement.
Second Round Table Conference
The Second Round Table Conference opened on 7 September 1931 in London and lasted until 1 December 1931. Gandhi was there as the representative of Congress. Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar died before the Second Round Table Conference. In his place, Allama Muhammad Iqbal came as the Muslims’ representative.
Two committees were set up under the conference, one on federal structure and the other on minorities. Gandhi was a member of both. The most important and sensitive issue before the conference was the Hindu-Muslim relationship. From the Muslim point of view, this was bound to affect the shape of the proposed federation.
The minorities subcommittee faced many difficulties, as Gandhi refused to accept minority demands and declared that it was difficult to reach agreement. He attributed this difficulty to the composition of the Indian delegation and demanded that the minority committee be disbanded so that it should not block the progress of constitution making. Gandhi demanded that the work of constitution making be started by putting aside the minorities issue.
Sir Muhammad Shafi, a Muslim representative, did not agree to Gandhi’s proposal and insisted that minorities issue must be resolved before taking up constitution making. Sir Shafi also demanded that Jinnah’s Fourteen Points be incorporated in the future constitution of India. No settlement of the minorities issue was reached due to Gandhi’s refusal to accept the existence of the communal problem. Gandhi put forward his own scheme to solve this problem. His solution was based on proposals made in the Nehru Report.
Independently, the minority groups; Muslims, Anglo-Indians, a section of the Indian Christians, and members of the European business community — reached an agreement among themselves and endorsed the principle of separate electorates. This agreement was presented by the Agha Khan to the tenth meeting of the minorities committee on 13 November 1931, but it was rejected by Gandhi, who insisted that as Congress represented 85 to 95 percent of the entire Indian population, only Congress could speak for the minorities. Under these circumstances, further progress was impossible.
The communal problem also hampered the work of the federal structure committee. The Second Round Table Conference thus ended without reaching any concrete conclusion. The British Government placed responsibility for reaching a solution upon the Indian delegates and warned them that if the Indians were unable to solve the communal problem, then the British government would have to decide the problem of representation.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT 1935
The three Round Table Conferences which wore held in 1930, 1931, 1932 were unable to achieve anything despite efforts to solve the constitutional problem of India. In March 1933, the British government issued a White Paper containing their recommendations for constitutional reforms in India. A joint parliamentary committee was set up under the chairmanship of Lord Linlithgow to consider the White Paper and make recommendations for a new governmental structure in India. This committee worked for eighteen months and submitted its report in November 1934. In January 1935 the British Government introduced the Government of India Bill in the House of Commons. This bill was based on the report presented by the committee. After passing through the preliminary stages in the parliament, the bill received the royal assent on 4 August 1935 and was declared the Government of India Act of 1935.
The Act contained 14 parts and 10 schedules and consisted of two parts. First, it set up a federation in India, in which the British Indian provinces and the princely states would participate in a common central government. The viceroy was appointed as its head, assisted by a council of ministers, except for foreign affairs and defence, which were responsible to the legislature. Second it established in eleven provinces autonomous governments under ministers responsible to elected legislatures. The Act came into operation on 1 April, 1937, except the portion which dealt with the All-India Federation, which could not be enforced until a specific number of princely states acceded to the Indian Federation. As no state acceded to the federation until the outbreak of World War II, the federal part of the constitution could not be activated.
The Act had several important features. It provided for the creation of two new provinces of Sindh and Orissa and divided the country into 11 provinces. The most important distinctive feature of the Act of 1935 was that for the first time provinces were considered as separate legal entities. The system of dyarchy was abolished in provinces. In addition, three lists of subjects were drawn up, the federal list, the provincial list and the concurrent list. The act also introduced dyarchy at the center. Every province was given a council of ministers whose advice was binding on the governor, who in turn was to act under the general control of the governor general. Special powers were given to governors for the protection of the rights of minorities. The Act enlarged the size of the legislature; the Upper House had 260 members and the Federal Assembly or the Lower House had 375 members. Also 6 out of 11 provinces were given a bicameral legislature. The Act extended the franchise to about 10% of the population by lowering property qualifications. The Act also established a federal court for inter-state disputes and interpretation of the constitution. The Act of 1935 abolished the Indian Council of the Secretary of State for India which was created in 1858. In its place advisors were appointed for the secretary of the state, but their advice was not biding on the secretary of the state. The Act extended communal electorates, and Anglo-Indians and Christians were given separate electorates. The Act maintained the supremacy of the British parliament. No Indian legislature, whether federal or provincial, was authorized to amend the constitution; only the British parliament had the authority to do so. The Act separated Burma and Aden from India with effect from April 1937.
Muslims were satisfied to find in the act the principle of the separate electorate, weightage and one-third Muslim representation at the center. They were also pleased with the introduction of provincial autonomy and the assigning of residuary powers to the governor general. But they were dissatisfied by the working of the proposed federal government. Quaid-i-Azam called the Act a “defective document.” It was said that the Act did not guarantee individual liberties, and that all authority was vested in the British parliament.
The central part of the Act was suspended for some time and was not enforced, but the provincial part of the Act was enforced, under which the elections were held in the country in 1937.
ELECTIONS 1936-37
Government of India Act 1935 came into operation, and elections were held in the winter of 1936-37. On 11th June 1936, the Election Manifesto of the Muslim League was announced. The League laid down two main principles for its elected representatives: first, the present provincial constitution and proposed central constitution should be replaced immediately by a system of self government. Second, in the meantime, the representatives of the Muslim League would work to get the maximum benefits out of the present constitution. Congress also came forward with a similar manifesto about public welfare, freedom, liberty and release of political prisoners.
The Indian National Congress obtained a majority in five provinces and was able to form governments in seven out of eleven provinces. The Muslim League did not do so well. The reason was that for a number of years the League had been divided into factions. In Punjab, Sir Fazl-i-Hussain had organized the Unionist Party, which included Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs. In Bengal, Fazlul Haq had formed the Krishak Praja Party, which included the Muslim League and the Independent Scheduled Caste group. In Sindh 35 Muslim members of the provincial assembly had been divided into four groups. In the NWFP, the Red Shirts led by Abdul Ghaffar Khan had aligned with the Congress . Only in the provinces where the Muslims were in the minority was the Muslim League in a better position. That is why Congress was in a position to form its own ministries in seven provinces.
The Congress’ electoral success was confined mainly to Hindu constituencies. Out of 491 Muslim constituencies, the Congress captured only 26.
Though Congress did well overall, it failed to secure 50% of the total seats, and its assertion at the Round Table conference that it was the spokesman of 95% of the population lost credibility. After the election, Quaid-e-Azam tried to collaborate with the Congress. The Muslim League expected its own representatives to be included in the provincial cabinets, but Congress refused coalition with the League on the grounds that British parliamentary practice does not allow coalition.
Therefore Congress formed single-party ministries in five provinces. With the help of small minority groups, Congress was able to form ministries in Bombay and NWFP. Thus there were Congress ministries in 7 out of 11 provinces.
Although Congress presented some terms under which it was prepared to let Muslim League join the coalition and enter provincial government, the League rejected these terms because they considered them rigid and detrimental to the self-respect of the Muslims. Therefore a pure Congress ministry was formed.
CONGRESS MINISTRIES
The congress after winning elections in 1937 formed its ministries in the eight provinces. They remained in power from July 1937 to November 1939. It was seen that Muslims living in those provinces underwent the oppressive and tyrannical rule of Congress for 2? years. The Congress regime was considered as an absolutist rule and oligarchy was created.
As Congress ministries became powerful, Hindu Nationalism started gaining strength, and Muslim minorities were oppressed. Muslims were forbidden to cat beef. Hindi was enforced as the official language in all the provinces. Azan was also forbidden. many attacks were arranged on Muslims praying in the Mosques. Many other atrocities also took place during the era of congressional power. The Government agencies offered no protection to the Muslims. There were many schemes enforced on the Muslims they were:-
Bande Matram
It was a song written by a Bengali novelist Bankim Chatterjee in his novel Anand Mat’. It presented Muslim as unclean and considered them as aliens. In order to strengthen their hold Congress High command insisted on starting the day’s beginnings by the recitation of this song. This song was also adopted permanently as the National Anthem.
Widdia Mander Schemes
It was a new educational system. Its main function was to convert Muslims into Hindus. It was enforced in all the Schools and the students were asked to bow before Gandhi’s picture.
Hoisting Of Three Coloured Flag
Congress ordered that only two powers exist in India, one Hindus and the other the British union. Therefore it was ordered to hoist three coloured flag (Taranga) on every building.
Warda Scheme
Aimed at creating a high respect among the younger people about the Hindu heroes and religious leaders.
In addition to these schemes it was observed that Congress started a Muslim mass contact campaign. Its main aim was to destroy the image of the Muslim league amongst the Muslims. Also Hindu muslim riots started which further aggravated the situation. The second world war started in september 1939. The British Government appealed to all political parties for help and assistance in this hour of need. But the Congress High Command refused to help the war effort and quit office. They refused on the basis that British Government declared war without consulting Congress. Thus in this way Congress rule came to an end. The Muslims celebrated this day 22 December 1939 as Deliverance Day throughout the country.
THE PAKISTAN RESOLUTION
When the Second World War started, the British-appointed Viceroy of India, Lord Linlithgow, proclaimed India’s entry into the war without consulting the main political parties or the Central Assembly. To secure India’s cooperation in the war effort, the British promised that at the end of the war, the Government of India Act 1935 would be modified in consultation with the main communities and parties. Congress, considering this, asked for a declaration of Indian independence, an immediate transfer of as much power as possible, and an agreement that the future constitution of India would be made by a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of adult suffrage.
The Muslim League, also working for independence, declared its willingness to help the war effort provided that in the future constitution making process, the approval and consent of both Muslims and Hindus would be sought. On 23 March 1940, the Muslim league held its annual session in Lahore under the leadership of Quaid-i-Azam. This session passed the famous Pakistan Resolution demanding a separate homeland for the Muslims, to be comprised of the northwestern and eastern zones of India. The Pakistan Resolution was moved by A. K. Fazlul Haq, the chief minister of Bengal, on 23 March 1940. The motion was seconded by Choudhry Khiliquzzaman, Maulana Zafar Ali Khan, Dr. Muhammad Aslam, Begum Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, Abdul Hamid Badayuni, Syed Zakir Ali (UP), Sir Abdullah Haroon (Sindh), Sardar Aurangzeb Khan (NWFP), Qazi Muhammad Issa (Balochistan), Nawab Muhammad Ismail (Bihar), Syed Abdur Rauf Shah (CP), Abdul Hamid Khan (Madras), and I. I. Chundrigar (Bombay). The Resolution stated that no constitutional plan would be acceptable to the Muslims unless it was designed in such a way that areas in which Muslims formed a majority would be separated to form parts of Pakistan. This Resolution called for the creation of independent Muslim States consisting of Punjab, NWFP, Sindh, and Balochistan in the northwest, and Bengal and Assam in the northeast. The Resolution first called for the formation of separate states but later described a single state under a central government.