27.VACCINES:

Immunogen consisting of a suspension of weakened or dead pathogenic cells injected in order to stimulate the production of antibodies can be defined as vaccines.

How Vaccines Work

Disease causing organisms have at least two distinct effects on the body The first effect is exhibiting symptoms such as fever, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, rash, and many others.the second effect generally leads to eventual recovery from the infection: the disease causing organism induces an immune response in the infected host. As the response increases in strength over time, the infectious agents are slowly reduced in number until symptoms disappear and recovery is complete.

The disease causing organisms contain proteins called "antigens" which stimulate the immune response. The resulting immune response is multi-fold and includes the synthesis of proteins called "antibodies." These proteins bind to the disease causing organisms and lead to their eventual destruction. In addition, "memory cells" are produced in an immune response. These are cells which remain in the blood stream, sometimes for the life span of the host, ready to mount a quick protective immune response against subsequent infections with the particular disease causing agent which induced their production. If such an infection were to occur, the memory cells would respond so quickly that the resulting immune response could inactivate the disease causing agents, and symptoms would be prevented. This response is often so rapid that infection doesn't develop - and we get immune from infection.

Vaccines are effective in preventing disease not only in individuals, but also in communities. This type of protection is called "herd immunity." When a disease spreads from one human to another, it requires both an infected individual to spread it and a susceptible individual to catch it. Herd immunity works by decreasing the numbers of susceptible people. When the number of susceptible people drops low enough, the disease will disappear from the community because there are not enough people to carry on the catch-and-infect cycle. The greater the proportion of vaccinated members of the community, the more rapidly the disease will disappear.


28.FERTILIZERS:

Any substance such as manure or a mixture of nitrates used to make soil more fertile are fertilizers.

Fertilizers are plant nutrients. Nutrients exist naturally in the earth's soil and atmosphere, and in animal manure. However, naturally occurring nutrients are not always available in the forms that plants can use. Therefore, man-made fertilizer is vital to food production. Man-made and natural fertilizers contain the same ingredients, but man-made fertilizers act more quickly and are less susceptible to weather changes. Farmers, ranchers and gardeners add these fertilizers directly to the soil, where they can be absorbed by plants for healthy growth. Incorporated into a program of best management practices, which includes soil testing, man-made fertilizer use leads to higher
crop yields and greater environmental protection.


--29.PESTICIDES:

Types of Pesticides

A pesticide is any chemical which is used by man to control pests. The pests may be insects, plant diseases, fungi, weeds, nematodes, snails, slugs, etc. Therefore, insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc., are all types of pesticides. Some pesticides must only contact (touch) the pest to be deadly. Others must be swallowed to be effective. The way that each pesticide attacks a pest suggests the best way to apply it; to reach and expose all the pests. For example, a pesticide may be more effective and less costly as a bait, rather than as a surface spray.

Insecticides

Insecticides are chemicals used to control insects. Often the word "insecticide" is confused with the word "pesticide." It is, however, just one of many types of pesticides. An insecticide may kill the insect by touching it or it may have to be swallowed to be effective. Some insecticides kill both by touch and by swallowing. Insecticides called Systemics may be absorbed, injected, or fed into the plant or animal to be protected. When the insect feeds on this plant or animal, it ingests the systemic chemical and is killed.

Miticides and Acaricides

Miticides (or Acaricides) are chemicals used to control mites (tiny Insecticides spider-like animals) and ticks. The chemicals usually must contact the mites or ticks to be effective. These animals are so numerous and small, that great care must be used to completely cover the area on which the mites live. Miticides are very similar in action to insecticides and often the same pesticide kills both insects and mites. The terms "broad spectrum," "short term," and "residual" are also used


Fungicides

Fungicides are chemicals used to control the fungi which cause molds, rots, and plant diseases. All fungicides work by coming in contact with the fungus, because fungi do not "swallow" in the normal sense. Therefore, most fungicides are applied over a large surface area to try to directly hit every fungus. Some fungicides may be systemic in that the plant to be protected may be fed or injected with the chemical. The chemical then moves throughout the plant, killing the fungi. to describe miticides.

Herbicides

Herbicides are chemicals used to control unwanted plants. These chemicals are a bit different from other pesticides because they are used to kill or slow the growth of some plants, rather than to protect them. Some herbicides kill every plant they contact, while others kill only certain plants.

Rodenticides

Rodenticides are chemicals used to control rats, mice, bats and other rodents. Chemicals which control other mammals, birds, and fish are also grouped in this category by regulatory agencies. Most rodenticides are stomach poisons and are often applied as baits. Even rodenticides which act by contacting the pest are usually not applied over large surfaces because of the hazard to domestic animals or desirable wildlife. They are usually applied in limited areas such as runways, known feeding places, or as baits.

Nematicides

Nematicides are chemicals used to control nematodes. Nematodes are tiny hir-like worms, many of which live in the soil and feed on plant roots. Very few of these worms live above ground. Usually, soil fumigants are used to control nematodes in the soil.