The Great Himalayas lie north of the Lower Himalayan Range. These mountains are bounded by the Indus River in the north and the west as the river takes a southward turn at Sazin. The average height of the range is about 6000 meters. Some of the highest peaks in the world lay in these mountains e.g. Nanga Parbat (8126 meters), which is the sixth highest peak in the world and the second highest peak in Pakistan. Since the mountains are perpetually covered with snow there are many glaciers, with Rupal Glacier being the longest (17.6 km). The glacial action has created many beautiful lakes like the Saiful Muluk Lake which lies in the upper Kaghan Valley. Another noticeable geographic feature of this area are the deep gorges carved by the Indus in this region. The deepest of which, located at Dasu-Patan region (Kohistan District), is 6500 meters deep.

The Hindu Kush, Hindū Kūsh or Hindoo Koosh is a mountain range in Afghanistan as well as in the North-West Frontier Province and Northern Areas of Pakistan. It is the westernmost extension of the Pamir Mountains, the Karakoram Range, and the Himalayas.

Nomenclature
The name Hindu Kush is usually applied to the whole of the range separating the basins of the Kabul and Helmand rivers from that of the Amu Darya (or ancient Oxus), or more specifically, to that part of the range to the northwest of Kabul which was called the Caucasus by the historians with Alexander the Great. Many Greeks also referred the range as Caucasus Indicus. It was also referred to by the Greeks as the "Paropamisos."

The origin of the term "Hindu Kush" (and whether it translates as "Killer of Hindu") is a point of contention (Kush means beginning in Sanskrit) The earliest known use of this name was by the famous Muslim Berber traveller, Ibn Battūta (circa 1334), who wrote: "Another reason for our halt was fear of the snow, for on the road there is a mountain called Hindūkūsh, which means "Slayer of Indians," because the slave boys and girls who are brought from Hind (India) die there in large numbers as a result of the extreme cold and the quantity of snow." In the Persian language of the Sassanian period, Hindu referred to any inhabitant of Indian subcontinent (Hindustan), or Hind, rather than to followers of Hinduism as it does now. At that time inhabitants of India were mostly Hindu, except for in present-day lands of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Kashmir and the Lakshadweep where they were Buddhist.

There are others who consider this origin to be a "folk etymology", and put forward alternate possibilities for its origin:

• That the name is a corruption of Caucasus Indicus, a name by which the Hindu Kush range was known in the ancient world after its conquest by Alexander the Great in the Fourth Century BC. Greek rule in the Hindu Kush region lasted over three centuries, and was followed by the rule of a dynasty known, significantly, as the Kushan. In its early period, the Kushan Empire had its capital near modern-day Kabul. The Kushans lost the Hindu Kush and became an Indian kingdom. Later, when the Hindu Kush region became part of the Sassanian Empire, it was ruled by a satrap known as the Kushan-shah (ruler of Kushan). A Fourth century CE Hebrew book, the Talmudic tractate of Megillah, uses the term "Kush Hodu" (Indian Kush), possibly a translation from the Persian words ("Hindu Kush") meaning "Indian Kush".
• In modern Persian, the word "Kush" is derived from the verb Kushtan - to defeat, kill, or subdue. This could be interpreted as a memorial to the Indian captives who perished in the mountains while being transported to Central Asian slave markets.
• That the name refers to the last great 'killer' mountains to cross when moving between the Afghan plateau and the Indian subcontinent, named after the toll it took on anyone crossing them.
• That the name is a corruption of Hindu Koh, from the (modern) Persian word Kuh, meaning mountain. Rennell, writing in 1793, refers to the range as the "Hindoo-Kho or Hindoo-Kush".
• That the name means Mountains of India or Mountains of the Indus (from the Indus River, the largest river in Pakistan) in some of the Iranian languages that are still spoken in the region; that furthermore, many peaks, mountains, and related places in the region have "Kosh" or "Kush" in their names.
• That the name is a posited Avestan appellation meaning "water mountains."
• That the name is a corruption of Hind-o Kushan, containing the name of the Kushan dynasty that once ruled this region for more than three centuries.
• That the name is a corruption of Hindu-Kusha, where "kusha" in Sanskrit means "seat".

The mountain peaks in the eastern part of Afghanistan reach more than 7,000 meters. The highest, in Pakistan, is Tirich Mir at 7,690 m (cf. Mount Everest in Nepal which stands 8,848 m high). The Pamir Mountains, which Afghans refer to as the "Roof of the World", extend into Tajikistan, China and Kashmir and are among the world’s highest mountains.

Mountains
The mountains of the Hindu Kush system diminish in height as they stretch westward: toward the middle, near Kabul, they extend from 4,500 to 6,000 meters; in the west, they attain heights of 3,500 to 4,000 meters. The average altitude of the Hindu Kush is 4,500 meters. The Hindu Kush system stretches about 966 kilometers laterally, and its median north-south measurement is about 240 kilometers. Only about 600 kilometers of the Hindu Kush system is called the Hindu Kush Mountains. The rest of the system consists of numerous smaller mountain ranges including the Koh-e Baba, Salang, Koh-e Paghman, Spin Ghar (also called the eastern Safid Koh), Suleiman Range, Siah Koh, Koh-e Khwaja Mohammad and Selseleh-e Band-e Turkestan. The western Safid Koh, the Siah Band and Doshakh are commonly referred to as the Paropamisus by western scholars.

Rivers that flow from the mountain system include the Helmand River, the Hari Rud and the Kabul River.

Numerous high passes ("kotal") transect the mountains, forming a strategically important network for the transit of caravans. The most important mountain pass is the Kotal-e Salang (3,878 m); it links Kabul and points south to northern Afghanistan. The completion of a tunnel within this pass in 1964 reduced travel time between Kabul and the north to a few hours. Previously access to the north through the Kotal-e Shibar (3,260 m) took three days. The Salang tunnel at 3,363 m and the extensive network of galleries on the approach roads were constructed with Soviet financial and technological assistance and involved drilling 1.7 miles through the heart of the Hindu Kush.

Before the Salang road was constructed, the most famous passes in the Western historical perceptions of Afghanistan were those leading to the Indian subcontinent. They include the Khyber Pass (1,027 m), in Pakistan, and the Kotal-e Lataband (2,499 m) east of Kabul, which was superseded in 1960 by a road constructed within the Kabul River's most spectacular gorge, the Tang-e Gharu. This remarkable engineering feat reduced travel time between Kabul and the Pakistan border from two days to a few hours.

The roads through the Salang and Tang-e Gharu passes played critical strategic roles during the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan and were used extensively by heavy military vehicles. Consequently, these roads are in very bad repair. Many bombed out bridges have been repaired, but numbers of the larger structures remain broken. Periodic closures due to conflicts in the area seriously affect the economy and well-being of many regions, for these are major routes carrying commercial trade, emergency relief and reconstruction assistance supplies destined for all parts of the country.

There are a number of other important passes in Afghanistan. The Wakhjir (4,923 m), proceeds from the Wakhan Corridor into Xinjiang, China, and into Northern Areas of Pakistan. Passes, which join Afghanistan to Chitral, Pakistan, include the Baroghil (3,798 m) and the Kachin (5,639 m), which also cross from the Wakhan. Important passes located farther west are the Shotorgardan (3,720 m), linking Logar and Paktiya provinces; the Bazarak (2,713 m), leading into Mazari Sharif; the Khawak (3,550 m) in the Panjsher Valley, and the Anjuman (3,858 m) at the head of the Panjsher Valley giving entrance to the north. The Hajigak (2,713 m) and Unai (3,350 m) lead into the eastern Hazarajat and Bamyan Valley. The passes of the Paropamisus in the west are relatively low, averaging around 600 meters; the most well-known of these is the Sabzak between the Herat and Badghis provinces, which links the western and northwestern parts of Afghanistan.

These mountainous areas are mostly barren, or at the most sparsely sprinkled with trees and stunted bushes. Very ancient mines producing lapis lazuli are found in Kowkcheh Valley, while gem-grade emeralds are found north of Kabul in the valley of the Panjsher River and some of its tributaries. The famous 'balas rubies' or spinels, were mined until the 19th century in the valley of the Ab-e Panj or Upper Amu Darya River, considered to be the meeting place between the Hindu Kush and the Pamir ranges. Unfortunately, these mines appear to be now exhausted.

The Eastern Hindu Kush range, also known as the Low Hindu Kush range, is mostly located in northern Pakistan and the Nuristan and Badakhshan provinces of Afghanistan. The Chitral district of Pakistan is home to Tirich Mir, Noshaq, and Istoro Nal, the highest peaks in the Hindu Kush. The range also extends into Ghizar, Yasin Valley, and Ishkoman in Pakistan's Northern Areas.

Chitral is considered to be the pinnacle of the Hindu Kush region. The highest peaks, as well as countless passes and massive glaciers, are located in this region. The Chiantar, Kurambar, and Terich glaciers are amongst the most extensive in the Hindu Kush and the meltwater from these glaciers form the Kunar River, which eventually flows south into Afghanistan and joins the Bashgal, Panjsher, and eventually the much smaller Kabul River.

The jazz musician Katie Melua wrote a song called "Halfway Up the Hindu Kush", probably because in the 1960s and 70s Afghanistan was depicted in the media as the romantic haven of nomads and a resort for hashish-smoking hippies.

Karakoram is a mountain range spanning the borders between Pakistan, China, and India, located in the regions of Gilgit, Ladakh and Baltistan. It is one of the Greater Ranges of Asia, often considered together with the Himalaya, but not technically part of that range. Karakoram means "black gravel" in Turkic, as many of its glaciers are covered in rubble.

The Karakoram is home to more than sixty peaks above 7,000m (22,960 ft), including K2, the second highest peak of the world (8,611 m, 28,244 ft). Most of these peaks are in the Northern Areas of Pakistan. The range is about 500 km (300 mi) in length, and is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside of the Polar Regions. The Siachen Glacier at 70 km and the Biafo Glacier at 63 km rank as the world's second and third longest glaciers outside the Polar Regions.

The Karakoram is bounded on the northeast by the edge of the Tibetan Plateau, and on the north by the Wakhan Corridor and the Pamir Mountains. Just to the west of the northwest end of the Karakoram lies the Hindu Raj range, beyond which is the Hindu Kush range. The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed by the Gilgit, Indus, and Shyok Rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalaya range proper.

Due to its altitude and ruggedness, the Karakoram is much less inhabited than parts of the Himalayas further east. European explorers first visited early in the 19th century, followed by British surveyors starting in 1856.

The Muztagh Pass was crossed in 1887 by the expedition of Colonel Francis Younghusband and the valleys above the Hunza River were explored by George Cockerill in 1892. Explorations in the 1910s and 1920s established most of the geography of the region.

Marcel Ichac made a film entitled "Karakoram", chronicling a French expedition to the range in 1936. The film won the Silver Lion at the Venice film festival of 1937.
A portion of the Karakoram, disputed between India and China, has been re-created as a scale model by the Chinese government.

Geological importance
The Karakoram and the Himalayas are important to Earth scientists for several reasons. They are one of the world's most geologically active areas, at the boundary between two colliding continents. Therefore, they are important in the study of plate tectonics. Mountain glaciers may serve as an indicator of climate change, advancing and receding with long-term changes in temperature and precipitation. These extensive ranges may have even caused climate change when they were formed over 40 million years ago. The large amounts of rock exposed to the atmosphere are weathered (broken down) by carbon dioxide. This process removes the greenhouse gas from the atmosphere, and could have caused the global climate to cool, triggering an ongoing series of ice ages.

Highest peaks
Most of the highest of Karakoram peaks are in the Northern Areas of Pakistan. Notable peaks are:

• K2 (Qogir Feng) (8,611 m)
• Gasherbrum I (8,068 m)
• Broad Peak (Phalchen Kangri) (8,047 m)
• Gasherbrum II (8,035 m)
• Gasherbrum IV (7,925 m)
• Distaghil Sar (7,885 m)
• Masherbrum (7,821 m)
• Rakaposhi (7,788 m)
• Kanjut Sar (7,761 m)
• Saser Kangri (7,672 m)
• Chogolisa (7,665m)
• Haramosh Peak (7,397 m)
• The Ogre (7,285 m)
• Muztagh Tower (7,273 m)

The majority of the highest peaks are either in the Baltistan or Ladakh regions. Baltistan has more than 100 mountain peaks exceeding 6,100 metres (20,000 ft) height from sea level.

Subranges
The naming and division of the various subranges of the Karakoram is not universally agreed upon. However, the following is a list of the most important subranges, following Jerzy Wala. The ranges are listed roughly west to east.

• Batura Muztagh
• Rakaposhi-Haramosh Mountains
• Spantik-Sosbun Mountains
• Hispar Muztagh
• South Ghujerab Mountains
• Panmah Muztagh
• Wesm Mountains
• Masherbrum Mountains
• Baltoro Muztagh
• Saltoro Mountains
• Siachen Muztagh
• Rimo Muztagh
• Saser Muztagh

Kirthar Mountains range is loacted in Balochistan and Sindh provinces of Pakistan. It extends southward for about 190 miles (300 km) from the Mula River in east-central Balochistan to Cape Muari (Monze) west of Karachi on the Arabian Sea. The Kirthar National Park is one of the largest wildlife reserve in Pakistan. The range forms the boundary between the Lower Indus Plain (east) and southern Balochistan (west). It consists of a series of parallel, rock hill ridges rising from 4,000 feet (1,200 m) in the south to nearly 8,000 feet (2,500 m) in the north. It is drained in the north by the Kolachi River and in the south by the Hub River and Lyari River, which flow to the Arabian Sea. The inhabitants of the region, chiefly Balochi, Sindhi, and Brahui tribes, subsist by flock grazing. Gabol being the major baloch tribe living here.

A range of mountains in central Punjab districts Sargodha and Jhang running across approximately 40 miles northwest in the region. It is said the last formation of hills in geographic history and are said to be the kind of hills found in Aravalli series Rajasthan.

It is quoted by Hindus religious scholars that this series was formed when Hanumanji picked up some rocks from Himalays to fight with Ravana and some pieces of rocks dropped from his hands which formed this series of mountains. The highest peak is about 980 feet and its name is Koh-e-Kirana.

The Salt Range is a hill system in the Punjab province of Pakistan, deriving its name from its extensive deposits of rock salt. The range extends from the Jhelum River to the Indus, across the northern portion of the Punjab province. The Salt Range contains the great mines of Mayo, Warcha and Kalabagh, which yield vast supplies of salt. Coal of an inferior quality is also found.

Sakaser and Tilla Jogian are the high peaks of Salt Range. Khabikki Lake and Uchhali Lake are the lakes of Salt Range.

The Siachen Muztagh is a remote subrange of the Karakoram range divided between India and Pakistan along the disputed line of control of Northern Areas of Pakistan, Jammu and Kashmir state of India and Xinjiang, China. It lies just north of the Siachen Glacier, one of the longest glaciers outside of the Polar Regions. Its highest peak is Teram Kangri I, 7,462 metres (24,482 feet).

Safed Koh ("white mountain") is a range of mountains on the Pakistan-Afghanistan border, up to 15,620ft (4,761 m) above sea-level at Mount Sikaram, straight and rigid, towering above all surrounding hills, it is near the Kabul River. A spur of the range is crossed by the Khyber Pass. The lower slopes are nearly barren; pine and deodar formerly grew on the main range, but devastation during the Afghan civil war reduced timber resources. The valleys support some agriculture.

The Spantik-Sosbun Mountains are a subrange of the Karakoram range in the Northern Areas of Pakistan. The highest peak is Spantik, 7,027 m (23,054 ft). The other namesake peak is Sosbun Brakk, 6,413 m (21,040 ft).

The Spantik-Sosbun Mountains are a narrow range, about 120 km (80 mi) long, trending roughly east west. On the north, the range is bounded by the important Hispar and Biafo Glaciers, across which lie the Hispar Muztagh and Panmah Muztagh respectively. On the southwest, the Barpu Glacier and the longer Chogo Lungma Glacier separate the range from the Rakaposhi-Haramosh Mountains; the pass known as the Polan La (5840 m/19,160 ft) separates the Barpu from the Chogo Lungma, and links the two ranges. On the southeast, the Braldu River separates the range from the somewhat lower Mango Gusor Mountains.

The Sulaiman Mountains are a major geological feature of Pakistan and one of the bordering ranges between the Iranian Plateau and the Indian subcontinent. Bordering the Sulaiman Range to the north are the arid highlands of the Hindu Kush, with more than 50 percent of the lands there lying above 2,000 m (6,500 feet). The highest peak of Sulaiman Mountains is Takht-e-Sulaiman (3,487 m or 11,437 feet) in Balochistan, Pakistan. The Sulaiman Range, and the high plateau to the west and southwest of it, helps form a natural barrier against the humid winds that blow from the Indian Ocean, creating arid conditions across Southern Afghanistan to the north. In contrast, the relatively flat and low-lying Indus Delta is situated due east and south of the Sulaiman Mountains. This lush delta is prone to heavy flooding and is mostly uncultivated wilderness.

Range
Takht-e-Sulaiman (3,487 m or 11,437 feet), Takatu and Giandari are some of the mountain peaks in the Sulaiman range. The mountain range approaches the Indus river near Mithankot in Rajanpur district of Punjab.

The Sulaiman Foldbelt, a north-south trending mountain chain is situated in the middle of Pakistan with three fold physiographic division; namely the Sulaiman Foldbelt in the west, the Indus Foredeep in the middle and Punjab Platform in the east. The Sulaiman Foldbelt consists of shale, limestone, and sandstone strata of Mesozoic and younger age. Zindapir Anticlinorium is an integral part of the Sulaiman Foldbelt. It is marked by low altitude rocks, which are built up of Paleocene through Plio-Pleistocene marine sediments of the Indo-Pakistan Plate and is overlying by thick Siwalik. Alluvial deposits brought by Indus River and its tributaries cover the Indus Foredeep and the adjoining west dipping Punjab Platform.

Field observations indicate that the structures style of Zindapir Anticlinorium is characterized by high angle faults. These faults are generally north south trending. Additionally at places en-echelon features and splay faults, which truncate the regional fault obliquely are noticeable.

Legends
The legend of the Sulaiman mountain range is east of Quetta, overlooking the plain of the Indus river. The highest peak (11,295 feet) is called Takht-i Sulaiman, Solomon's Throne; Ibn Battuta names it Koh-i Sulaiman. Of this it is related, that the Prophet of God, Hazrat Sulaiman (peace be upon him) climbed this mountain and looked out over the land of South Asia, which was then covered with darkness - but he turned back without descending into this new frontier, and left only the mountain which is named after him. (From Ibn Battuta)

The Toba Kakar Mountains are a Southern offshoot of the Himalayas in the Balochistan region of Pakistan. The historical route through the mountains is known as the Bolan Pass, and though the mountains are sometimes inaccurately referred to as the "Brahui Mountains", Brahui is the term for an ethnic group that lives in the region, and their language.

The mountains originally received media attention in August, 1979; when evidence emerged that Pakistan may be using them as a potential workspace towards development of nuclear weapons. Again in April, 1981, the United States government raised concerns, this time with Senator Alan Cranston referring specifically to a nuclear test site, built into the side of the mountains, 40 kilometers from Afghanistan. As a result of this, Congress amended existing legislation that would terminate financial assistance to Pakistan in the event of any nuclear test, so that it could not be waived by the President.

In late 2004, John Lehman announced that the United States now had the whereabouts of Osama bin Laden narrowed down to a 16-square kilometer area in the Toba Kakar mountains; though they were hesitant to enter the area , Lehman using the reference that it would be "another Vietnam". Pakistan's Major General Shaukat Sultan commented the claims of bin Laden being in that mountain range were "ridiculous" and without basis.

Located in Central Asia, the Pamir Mountains are formed by the junction or "knot" of the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, and Hindu Kush ranges. They are among the world’s highest mountains. They are also known by the Chinese name of Congling or 'Onion Mountains.'

The Pamir region is centered in the Tajikistani region of Gorno-Badakhshan. Parts of the Pamir also lie in the countries of Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. South of Gorno-Badakhshan, the Wakhan Corridor runs through the Pamir region, which also includes the northern extremes of the North-West Frontier Province and the northern extremes of the Northern Areas of Pakistan.

Geography
Its three highest mountains are Ismail Samani Peak (known from 1932–1962 as Stalin Peak, and from 1962–1998 as Communism Peak), 24,590 ft (7,495 m); Independence Peak, 23,508 ft (7,165 m); and Pik Korzhenevskoi, 23,310 ft (7,105 m).

There are many glaciers in the Pamir Mountains, including the 45-mile-long (72 km) Fedchenko Glacier, the longest in the former USSR and the longest glacier outside the Polar region.

Climate
Covered in snow throughout the year, the Pamirs have long and bitterly cold winters, and short, cool summers. Annual precipitation is about 5 inches (130 mm), which supports grasslands but few trees.

Economy
Coal is mined in the west, though sheep herding in upper meadowlands are the primary source of income for the region.

Discoveries
In the early 1980s, a deposit of gemstone-quality clinohumite was discovered in the Pamir Mountains. It was the only such deposit known until the discovery of gem-quality material in the Taymyr region of Siberia in 2000.

Transportation
At the southeastern edge of the Pamir region, in China, the highest international highway in the world, the Karakoram Highway, connects Pakistan to China. The Pamir Highway, the world’s second highest, runs from Dushanbe in Tajikistan to Osh in Kyrgyzstan through the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region and is the isolated region’s main supply route.

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