Amri is the site of a Pre-Harappa fortified town which flourished from 3600 to 3300 BC.

The site is located south of Mohenjo Daro on Hyderabad-Dadu Road about 110 kilometres north of Hyderabad in Sindh. Situated near foothills of Kirthar Range of mountains, this was an important earlier urban center in Lower Sindh. Amri is close to Balochistan where development of earlier farming communities from 6000BC to 4000BC ultimately led to urbanization. On timeline, Amri is dated after Rehman Dheri.

The ancient mounds of 8 hectares on the west bank of Indus River have been extensively excavated. The pottery discovered here had its own characteristics and known as Amri Ware. Like other Pre Harappa towns, no writings were found at this site. There is evidence of widespread fire at the town around 2500BC.

Amri Culture
Amri Culture is attributed to Amri archaeological sites in Sindh and Balochistan provinces of Pakistan.

At least 160 settlements attributed to the Amri Culture, have been discovered, mainly in Balochistan, but also in lower Sindh. They are often distributed along the terraces of old and active river courses and consist of sites of different size and shape, which are sometimes stratified below settlements of later periods. Among these, that of the Tharro Hills, near the town of Gujo, is one of the most famous of lower Sindh.


Barikot is a city in the North West Frontier province of Pakistan, located in the Swat valley region (ancient Udyana). Barikot is the present day name of the ancient "Bazira", which was besieged by Alexander the Great.

Ancient fortifications by the name of Barikot-Ghwandai, located on the outskirts of the town, are being excavated by an Italian Archaeological mission since 1984.

The oldest layer built of bricks and stone probably corresponds to the fortress besieged by Alexander.However, no traces of the Macedonian occupation have been found yet.

The sequent layers consist of fortifications built by the Indo-Greek kings. A stonewall in Hellenistic style was built around the city, with equidistant quadrangular bastions, all according to Attic measurements. Ruins of palatial quarters as well as areas related to the Buddhist cult have been unearthed. During the Kushan period, Barikot experienced rapid development swith the creation of building dedicated to workmanship.

Barikot has become a very important archaeological site, rivaling Taxila, for the study of history in northern Pakistan. A large quantity of the artifacts are preserved in the National Museum of Oriental Art of Rome, and the City Museum of Ancient Art in Turin's Palazzo Madama.

The nearby sanctuary of Butkara I has been very valuable in the study of the development of Greco-Buddhist art.


The Butkara Stupa is an important Buddhist shrine in the area of Swat, Pakistan. It may have been originally built by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka but it is generally dated slightly later to the 2nd century BCE.

The stupa was enlarged on five occasions during the following centuries, every time by building over, and encapsulating, the previous structure.

Excavation
The stupa was excavated by an Italian mission (IsIOAO: Istuto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente), led by archaeologist Pierfrancesco Callieri from 1955, to clarify the various steps of the construction and enlargements. The mission established that the stupa was "monumentalized" by the addition of Hellenistic architectural decorations during the 2nd century BCE, suggesting a direct involvement of the Indo-Greeks , rulers of northwestern India during that period, in the development of Greco-Buddhist architecture.

An Indo-Corinthian capital representing a Buddhist devotee within foliage has been found which had a reliquary and a coin of Azes II buried at its base, securely dating the sculpture to earlier than 20 BCE. The nearby Hellenistic fortifications of Barikot are also thought to be contemporary.

A large quantity of the artifacts is preserved in the National Museum of Oriental Art and the City Museum of Ancient Art in Turin's Turin City Museum of Ancient Art.


Chakdara town is located in Malakand, NWFP, Pakistan. Chakdara is an important town of Lower Dir, located on the bank of the Swat River. It is about 130 km from Peshawar and 48 km away from Saidu Sharif. The Mughals built a fort here in 1586, which was later occupied by the British in 1895, who built the present fort in 1896. The University of Malakand is located in Chakdara.

Chakdara, situated in Lower Swat Valley, has been an important center for last 3500 years and littered with remains of Aryan settlements, which represent Gandhara grave culture, Buddhists sites, and Hindu Shahi forts.

Archaeological Sites Around Chakdara
The ancient route from Afghanistan via Nawa Pass and Katgala Pass cross Swat River here at Chakdara. The area around Chakdara has been occupied for thousands of years. Many earlier Aryans settlement are identified in the area. Surrounding area is littered with Buddhist and Hindu Shahi sites. 1st to 7th century Buddhist sculpture from nearby sites and Hindu Shahi artefacts are now displayed at Chakdara Museum.

Damkot Hill
The most important place in Chakdara is Damkot Hill. Top of Damkot Hill has been excavated and houses of earlier Aryans with pottery and jewellery had been discovered. These items are now displayed in the Saidu Sharif Museum.

At the foot of Damkot Hill at Salami an Aryan garveyard is located. Aryans buried partially cremated bodies surrounded by the necessary utensils of daily life. Graves were sealed by large stone slabs.

Buddhist stupa and monastery of first century AD was excavated by Ahmad Hasan Dani in 1962-65. There are some Buddhist carving at the foot of the hill. During Hindu Shahi period a fort was built here which was destroyed in 11th century. In 19th century British occupied this hill. Behind Damkot Hill at Chat Pat is the site of a monastery of late 4th century. The sculpture from this monastery are displayed in Chakdara Museum.

Andan Dheri
Andan Dheri an important Buddhist site is located 7 km north of Chakdara Bridge near village Uchh. According to Buddhist pilgrim Xuan Zang this site was attached to a famous lagend about Buddha. According to this legend, in order to save people from famine Buddha changed himself into a great serpent lying dead in the valley. The starved people cut pieces from the body and fed themselves.

According to another tradition, Gandhāra is also thought to be the location of the mystical Lake Dhanakosha, birthplace of Padmasambhava, founder of Tibetan Buddhism. The bKa' brgyud (Kagyu) sect of Tibetan Buddhism identifies the lake with Andan Dheri stupa. A spring was said to flow from the base of the stupa to form the lake. Archaeologists have found the stupa but no spring or lake can be identified. Andan Dehri Stupa excavated by Dani. Over 500 pieces of Gandhara sculpture were recovered.

Other Sites
Three kilometers from Andan Dheri Stupa a Hindu Shahi fort of Kamal Khan China is located. It is now in ruins. From this fort a track leads to Nimogram Buddhist Monastery and Stupa. It has three main stupas, which identify three principles of Buddhism; Buddha the teacher, Dharma and Sangha (the Buddhist order). Near Chakdara Bridge in Lower Swat Valley, there are ruins of Hindu Shahi Period and stupas at Haibatgram, Top Dara and Landakai.


Chanhudaro is an archaeological site belonging to the Jhukar phase of Indus valley civilization. The site is located 130 kilometers (81 miles) south of Mohenjodaro, in Sindh, Pakistan. The settlement was inhabited between 4000-1700 BC, and is considered to have been a centre for manufacturing carnelianbeads.

Chanhudaro was first excavated in the mid-1930s by the American School of Indic and Iranian Studies and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. After the independence of Pakistan, Mohammed Rafique Mughal also did exploratory work in the area.


The Chaukhandi tombs are a massive complex of graves, both above and below ground, located in the Sindh province, near Karachi.


Gaddani is a small coastal city of Lasbela District located in the southern part of Baluchistan along the Arabian Sea. Gaddani is just 1-hour drive away from Karachi. The population of Gaddani is estimated to be over 100,000 in 2005. More than 97% of the population is Muslim with small Hindu minority. The majority of population speaks Balochi and there is a large Sindhi speaking minority. In Gadani majority of the population speaks a language named Lasi, this language is derived from Sindhi or Jadgali.

Many prehistoric shell-midden sites were discovered along the shores of a small bay, near Gaddani. They are characterized of heaps of fragments of marine and mangrove shells among which are flint and jasper tools and stone querns. The first radiocarbon dates obtained from these maddens indicate they result from the activity of people who settled along the coast both during the seventh and the fifth millennia before present.



The Kingdom of Gandhara lasted from the 6th century BC to the 11th century AD. It attained its height from the 1st century to the 5th century AD under Buddhist Kushan Kings. After it was conquered by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1021 AD, the name Gandhara disappeared. During the Muslim period the area was administered from Lahore or from Kabul. During Mughal time the area was part of Kabul province.

The Gandharas were settled since the Vedic times on the banks of Kabul River up to its mouth into Indus. The region is known as Peshawar Valley. Later the Gandharas crossed the Indus and included parts of northwest Punjab of Pakistan. Gandhara was located on the grand northern high road (Uttarapatha) and was a centre of international commercial activities. It was an important channel of communication with ancient Iran and Central Asia.

The boundaries of Gandhara varied throughout history. Sometime the Peshawar valley and Taxila collectively referred to as Gandhara. The Swat valley was also sometimes included. However, the heart of Gandhara was always the Peshawar valley. The kingdom was ruled from capitals at Pushkalavati (Charsadda), Taxila, Purushapura (Peshawar) and in its final days from Udabhandapura (Hund) on the Indus.


Ancient Gandhara

Pre Historic Period
Evidence of Stone Age human inhabitants of Gandhara, including stone tools and burnt bones, was discovered at Sanghao near Mardan in area caves. The artifacts are approximately 15,000 years old.

To date no evidence of Harappan Culture of Indus Valley Civilization has been found in Gandhara. The Kushan moved into Gandhara and the rest of North Western Pakistan around 1500BC.

The region shows an influx of southern Central Asian culture in the Bronze Age with the Gandhara grave culture, likely corresponding to immigration of Indo-Kushan speakers and the nucleus of Vedic civilization. This culture survived till 600 BC. Its evidence has been discovered in the Hilly regions of Swat and Dir, and even at Taxila.

The name of the Gandharis is attested from the Rigveda (RV 1.120.1). The Gandharis, along with the Mujavantas, Angas and the Magadhas, are also mentioned in the Atharvaveda (AV 5.22.14), but apparently as a despised people. Gandharas are included in the Uttarapatha division of Puranic and Buddhistic traditions. Aitareya Brahmana refers to king Naganajit of Gandhara who was contemporary of Janaka, king of Videha.

Gandharas and their king figure prominently as strong allies of the Kurus against the Pandavas in Mahabharata war. The Gandharas were a furious people, well trained in the art of war. According to Puranic traditions, this Janapada was founded by Gandhara, son of Aruddha, a descendant of Yayati. The princes of this country are said to have come from the line of Druhyu who was a famous king of Rigvedic period. The river Indus watered the lands of Gandhara.

The Gandhara kingdom sometimes also included Kashmira. Hecataeus of Miletus (549-468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura i.e. Kashmira) as Gandaric city. According to Gandhara Jataka, at one time, Gandhara formed a part of the kingdom of Kashmir. Jataka also gives another name Chandahara for Gandhara. Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya refer to sixteen great nations (solas Mahajanapadas) which flourished in Indian sub-continent during Buddha's time, only two of which viz. the Gandhara and the Kamboja were located in the Uttarapatha or the north-western division.

Gandhāra is also thought to be the location of the mystical Lake Dhanakosha, birthplace of Padmasambhava, founder of Tibetan Buddhism. The bKa' brgyud (Kagyu) sect of Tibetan Buddhism identifies the lake with Andan Dheri stupa, located near the tiny village of Uchh near Chakdara in the lower Swat Valley. A spring was said to flow from the base of the stupa to form the lake. Archaeologists have found the stupa but no spring or lake can be identified.

The primary cities of Gandhara were Purushpura (now Peshawar), Takshashila (Prakrit Taxila) and Pushkalavati. Last two cities are said to have been named after Taksa and Pushkara, the two sons of Bharata, a prince of Ayodhya.

Pushkalavati & Prayag
Pushkalavati remained the capital of Gandhara from the 6th century BC to the 2nd century AD, when the capital moved to Peshawar. An important Buddhist shrine kept the city as a centre of pilgrimage until 7th century AD. Pushkalavati had some significance for earlier Aryans. This city in Peshawar Valley is situated at the confluence of Swat and Kabul rivers. Three different branches of the River Kabul meet there. That specific place is still called Prang and considered sacred. The local people still bring their dead for burial. Aryans found similar geographical characteristics at the confluence of Ganga and Yamuna and founded a sacred city by the name of Prayag near Benares. This is one of the ancient pilgrim centres of India.

Taxila
The Gandharan city of Taxila was an important Hinduand Buddhist centre of learning from the 5th century BC to the 2nd century AD.

Persian rule
Cyrus the Great (558-530 BCE) built first universal empire of the world stretching from Greece to the Indus River. Both Gandhara and Kamboja soon fell a prey to the Achaemenian Dynasty of Persia during the reign of Cyrus the Great or in the first year of Darius I. The Gandhara and Kamboja had constituted the seventh satrapys (upper Indus) of the Achaemenid Empire.

When Achamenian took control of this kingdom, Pushkra-sakti a contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha was the king of Gandhara. He was in power struggle against kingdoms of Avanti and Pandavas.

The inscription on Darius' (521-486 BC) tomb at Naqsh-i-Rustam near Persepolis recorded GADARA (Gandhara) along with HINDUSH (West Punjab) in the list of satrapies. The Greek historian Herodotus (490-420 BC) in his book The Histories gave list of twenty provinces of Persian Empire. He reported Gandhara as Paktuike (3:93) and in another passage identified this territory with Peshawar Valley (4:44). The word Paktuike is interesting since present inhabitants of Gandhara are known as Pakhtun.

Under Persian rule system of centralized administration and bureaucratic system introduced to the region. Influenced by the Persians and access to Western Asians civilization, the great scholars like Panini and Kautilya born in this cosmopolitan environment. Kharosti alphabet derived from Aramaic (official language of Achaemenians) alphabet developed here and remained national script of Gandhara until third century AD.

By about 380 BC Persian hold weakened. Many small kingdoms sprang in Gandhara. Around 327 BC Alexander the Great invaded Gandhara and Indian Satrapies of Persian Empire. His stay in this area was merely less than a year. This did not have any immediate administrative or cultural effect. The expeditions of Alexander were recorded by Arrian (around 175 AD) in Anabasis and other chroniclers many centuries after the event. The names of places and personalities described in these chronicles are difficult to identify.
The companions of Alexander the Great did not record the names of Kamboja and Gandhara and rather located a dozen small political units in their territories. Alexander conquered most of these political units of the former Gandhara and Kamboja Mahajanapadas.

According to Greek chroniclers, at the time of Alexander's invasion, hyparchs Kubhesha, Hastin (Astes) and Ambhi (Omphes) were ruling lower Kabul valley, Puskalavati (modern Charasadda) and Taxila respectively, while Ashvajit (chief of Aspasios or Ashvayanas) and Assakenos (chief of Assakenois or Ashvakayanas) (both being sub-units of the Kambojas) were ruling upper Kabul valley and Mazaga (Mashkavati) respectively.

Gandhara under the Mauryas
Chandragupta, the founder of Mauryan dynasty was living in Taxila when Alexander captured this city. Here he met Kautilya, who remained his chief adviser throughout his career. Gandhara was won back from the Greeks by Chandragupta Maurya. Having defeated Seleucus Nicator (Alexander's successor in Asia) in 305 BC, the Mauryan Emperor extended his domains up to and including Southern Afghanistan. Using this Gandhara as his base Chandragupta led a rebellion against Magadha Empire and ascended to the throne at Pataliputra in 321 BC. He was the first ruler of Mauryan dynasty. With the completion of the Empire's Grand Trunk Road, the region presumably prospered as a center of trade. Gandhara remained a part of the Mauryan Empire for close to a century and a half.

Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta was the one of the greatest rulers the world has ever known. Like his grandfather, Ashoka also started his career from Gandhara as a governor. Later he became Buddhist and promoted this religion in his empire. He built many stupas in Gandhara. Mauryan control over northern frontagers including the Yonas, Kambojas and the Gandharas is attested from the Rock Edicts left by Ashoka, who shows special solicitude for these frontier highlanders. His successors, however, failed to cast such imperial shadows throughout the sub-continent.

It is also held by some scholars that the Gandharas and the Kambojas were one people. Based on time and space contiguity, this view does not seem to be wide off the mark.

Gandhara under Graeco-Bactrians, Sakas and Indo-Parthians
The decline of the Empire left the sub-continent open to Greco-Bactrian expansion. Southern Afghanistan was absorbed by Demetrius of Bactria in 180 BCE. Around about 185 BCE, Demetrius, King of Bactria invaded and conquered Gandhara and the Punjab. Later, wars between different groups of Greek settlers of Bactria, resulted in the independence of Gandhara from Bactria and the formation of the Indo-Greek kingdom. Menander was the most famous king. He ruled from Taxila and later from Sagala (Sialkot). He rebuilt Taxila (Sirkap) and Pushkalavati. He became Buddhist and remembered in Buddhists records due to his discussions with a great Buddhist philosopher in the book Milinda Panha.

Around the time of Menander’s death in 140 BCE, Kushans overran Bactria and ended Greek rule there. Around 80 BCE, Sakas, diverted by their Parthian cousins from Iran moved into Gandhara and other parts of Pakistan and Western India. The most famous king of Sakas was Maues who established himself in Gandhara. The Pashtu (or Pakhtu) now spoken in North Western Pakistan and Afghanistan is said to be based on Saka’s language.

By 90 BCE Parthians took control of eastern Iran and around 50 BCE put an end to last remnants of Greek rule in Afghanistan. By around 7 CE an Indo-Parthian dynasty succeeded in taking control of Gandhara. Parthians continued to support Greek artistic traditions in Gandhara. The start of the Gandharan Greco-Buddhist art is dated to the period between 50 BCE and 75 CE. Around 40 CE Thomas the Apostle visited India and encountered the Indo-Parthian king Gondophares.

The Golden Age of Kushans Rule
The Parthian dynasty fell about 75 AD to another horde from Central Asia. Kushans, known as Yueh-Chih in China moved from Central Asia to Bactria, where they stayed for a century. Around 75 AD, one of the tribe Kushan under the leadership of Kujula Kadphises gained control of Gandhara and other part of present Pakistan.

The Kushan period is considered the Golden Period of Gandhara. Peshawar Valley and Taxila are littered with ruins of stupas and monasteries of this period. Gandharan art flourished and produced some of the best pieces of sculpture of all time. Many monuments were created to commemorate the Jataka tales.

Gandhara civilization peaked during the reign of the great Kushan king Kanishka (128-151-AD). This was the golden period of Gandhara. Cities of Taxila at Sirsukh, and Peshawar were built. Peshawar became the capital of a great empire stretching from Bengal to Central Asia. Kanishka was a great patron of the faith and Buddhism spread to Central Asia and the Far East over the Pamir where his empire met the Han Empire of China.

Kanishka Empire was known as the Kingdom of Gandhara and under his leadership it became the center of civilization. The Buddhist art spread outward from Gandhara to other parts of Asia. He greatly encouraged Buddhism. Before Kanishka Buddha was not represented in human form. In Gandhara Mahayana Buddhism flourished and Buddha was represented in human form.

Kanishka created big monuments of Arts. He built a great tower to a height of 400 feet at Peshawar. This tower was reported by Fa-Hsien, Sun-Yun and Hsuan-Tsang. This structure was destroyed and rebuilt many times and remained in semi ruins until it was finally destroyed by Mahmood in 11th century. Under him Gandhara became a holy land of Buddhism and attracted Chinese pilgrimage to visit Gandhara to see monuments associated with many Jataka tales.

After Kanishka, the empire started losing territories in the east. In the west it came under Sassanian (who took power from Parthians in Iran) suzerainty and became their vassal from 241-450AD. Under these Kushan chiefs new Buddhists stupas continued to appear and old ones were enlarged. Huge statues of the Buddha were erected in monasteries and carved into the hillsides.

Gandhara after Huns Invasion
Huns captured Gandhara around 450 AD, and did not adopt Buddhism. During their rule, Hinduism revived and Gandharan Civilization declined. Sassanians aided by Turks destroyed the Huns' power base in Central Asia and Gandhara once again came under Persian suzerainty in 568 AD. When the Sassanians were defeated by Muslim Arabs in 644 AD, Gandhara along with Kabul was ruled by Buddhist Turks.

The travel records of many Chinese Buddhists pilgrims record that Gandhara was going through a transformation during these centuries. Buddhism was declining and Hinduism was rising. Fa-Hsien travelled around 400 AD, when Prakrit was the language of the people and Buddhism was flourishing. 100 years later, when Sung-Yun visited in 520 AD, a different picture is described: the area had been destroyed by Huns and was ruled by Lae-Lih who did not practice law of Buddha. Hiun-Tsang visited around 644 and found Buddhism on the wane and Hinduism in the ascendant. Gandhara was ruled by a king from Kabul, who respected Buddha law, but Taxila was in ruins and Buddhist monasteries were deserted. Instead, Hindu temples were numerous and Hinduism was popular.

Gandhara under Turkshahi & Hindushahi
After the fall of the Sassanian Empire to Arabs in 644 AD Afghanistan and Gandhara came under pressure from Muslims. But they failed to extend their empire to Gandhara. Gandhara was first ruled from Kabul and then from Udabhandapura (Hind).

In 665 AD Kabul was put under siege by Arabs, but they never tried to cross Hindu Kush. Arabs never fully subdued Kabul and Gandhara was ruled from there by Turkshahi for next 200 years. Sometime in 9th century Hindushahi replaced Turkshahi. The date of Hindushahi takeover from Turkshahi (Also recorded as Kabulshahi) is not certain. Based on various Muslim records the estimated date is 870 AD.

According to Al-Biruni (973-1048 AD), Kallar a Brahmin minister of Turkshahi founded Hindushahi dynasty in 843 AD. The dynasty ruled from Kabul, later moved capital to Udabhandapura. They build great temples all over their kingdoms. Some of these buildings are still in good conditions in the Salt Range of the Punjab.

End of Gandhara
Jayapala was the last great king of this dynasty. His empire extended from west of Kabul to the River Sutlej. However, timing of this expansion of Gandhara kingdom coincided with the rising of a powerful Ghaznavid Empire under Sabuktigin. Defeated twice by Sabuktigin and then by Mahmud of Ghazni in Kabul valley. Jayapala committed suicide. Son of Jaypala, Anandpala moved his capital near Nandana in Salt Range. In 1021 AD the last king of this dynasty Trilocanpala assassinated by his own troops. Name of Gandhara was forgotten forever.

Kandhar in Afghanistan was probably named after Gandhara. According to H.W. Bellow, emigrant from Gandhara in fifth century AD brought this name to modern Kandhar. Fa-Hsien reported Buddha’s alms-bowl in Peshawar Valley when he visited around 400 AD. In 1872 Bellow saw huge begging bowl 7 feet in diameter preserved in the shrine of Sultan Wais outside Kandhar, which was probably brought there by refuge Buddhists monks. When Caroe wrote his book in 1958, this relic was reported to be at Kabul Museum Present status of this bowl is not known due to the war in Afghanistan since last couple of decades.

Discovery of Gandhara
By the time Gandhara absorbed in to Mahmood of Ghazni Empire, Buddhist buildings were already in ruins and Gandhara Art had been forgetton. After Al-Biruni, Kashmiri writer Kahana wrote his book Rajatarangini in 1148 AD. He recorded events about Gandhara, its last royal dynasty and capital Udabhandapura. The history and art of the Gandhara remained unknown to the inhabitants of the area and rest of the world until 19th century.

In 19th Century AD, British soldiers and administrators started taking interest in the ancient history of the Indian Subcontinent. In the 1830s coins of the post Ashoka period were discovered and in the same period Chinese travelogues were translated. Charles Masson, James Prinsep and Cunningham deciphered the Kharosthi script in 1838.

Chinese records provided locations and site plans of Buddhists shrines. Along with the discovery of coins, these records provided necessary clues to piece together the history of Gandhara.

In 1848 Cunningham found Gandhara sculptures north of Peshawar. He also identified the site of Taxila in the 1860s. From then on a large number of Buddhist statues were being discovered in the Peshawar valley.

Marshal performed an excavation of Taxila from 1912 to 1934. He discovered Greek, Parthian, and Kushan cities and large number of stupas and monasteries. These discoveries helped to piece together much more of the chronology of the history of Gandhara and its art.

After 1947 Ahmed Hassan Dani and the Archaeology Department at University of Peshawar made a number of discoveries in the Peshawar and Swat Valley. Researchers, from many universities around the world, are doing excavation on many sites of the Gandhara Civilization.

Language
The Gandharan Buddhist texts are both the earliest Buddhist and Indian manuscripts ever discovered. Most are composed on birch bark and were found in labeled clay pots. Panini has mentioned both Vedic form Gandhari as well as the later form Gandhari in his Ashtadhyayi.

Gandhara's language was a collection of related Prakrit or "Middle Indo-Aryan" dialects. They were written right-to-left in the Kharosthī script, which was ultimately adapted from the Aramaic alphabet. At the time of its adoption, Gandhāra was controlled by the Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian empire, which used a similar script to write the related Iranian languages of the Empire. Semitic scripts were not used to write Indian languages again until the arrival of Islam and subsequent adoption of the Persian-style Arabic alphabet for New Indo-Aryan languages like Urdu, Punjabi, Sindhi and Kashmiri. Kharosthi script died out about the 4th century, though Hindko and Kohistani, dialects of the ancient Indo-Aryan Prakrit language Siraiki are the dialects which are still spoken today.

Gandhara was an Indo-Aryan country, but Achamenian influence brought about the birth of the Pakhtu language. The Afridi, Dilazak and Khattak tribes were the prominent Pashtun tribes of ancient Gandhara (called by them "Qandahar". This name was later given by refugees from here, who founded the present day Afghan city of the same name). They were Buddhist and pagan rather than Hindu, which is implied in the name of that language.

Gandharan proselytism
Gandharan Buddhist missionaries were active, with other monks from Central Asia, from the 2nd century CE in the Chinese capital of Luoyang, and particularly distinguished themselves by their translation work. They promoted both Theravada and Mahayana scriptures.

• Lokaksema, a Kushan and the first to translate Mahayana scriptures into Chinese (167-186).
• Zhi Yao (c. 185), a Kushan monk, second generation of translators after Lokaksema.
• Zhi Qian (220-252), a Kushan monk whose grandfather had settled in China during 168-190.
• Zhi Yueh (c.230), a Kushan monk who worked at Nanjing.
• Dharmaraksa (265-313), a Kushan whose family had lived for generations at Dunhuang.
• Jnanagupta (561-592), a monk and translator from Gandhara.
• Shikshananda (652-710), a monk and translator from Udyana, Gandhara.
• Prajna (c. 810), a monk and translator from Kabul, who educated the Japanese Kūkai in Sanskrit texts.

GANERIWALA Ganeriwala is an Indus Valley civilization site of an urban center in the Punjab, Pakistan. It is located near the border to India and was discovered by Pakistani archaeologist M.R. Mughal in 1975. It is near a dry bed of River Hakra (also known as Ghaggar or Sarasvati River).

The Harappa Culture of Indus Valley grew out of the earlier Mehrgarh Culture in Baluchistan, NWFP, Sind, Punjab and Western India.

By 3000 B.C., hundreds of farming communities sprang up in Indus Valley. Helped by the annual flooding of the Indus and its tributaries, communities grow different crops in the rich soil. The result of this development was the more advanced urban center than the Pre Harappa Towns of Kot Diji or Rehman Dheri. Until now six urban centers of the Harappa Culture have been discovered; Harappa, Mohenjo Daro, Ganweriwala in Pakistan, and Rakhigarhi, Dholavira, Lothal in India.

The site at Ganeriwala, 80 hectares in size, as large as Mohenjo Daro has not been excavated.


Gor Khuttree in Peshawar old city, Pakistan was identified by Sir Alexander Cunningham with Kanishka Vihara (the Great Stupa of King Kanishka) while Professor Dr Ahmad Hasan Dani identified it with the place where the famous tower of the Buddha bowl once stood.

S.M. Jaffar identified it with the place of Hindu pilgrimage where they performed the Sardah ritual (shaving off heads).

The celebrated Chinese pilgrim, Hiuen Tsang, who visited Gandhara in the early 7th Century AD, had paid glowing tribute to the city and the Great Stupa of Kanishka in his memoirs.

Mughal Emperor Babar, who recorded its importance in his autobiography, visited the place. Jehan Ara Begum, the daughter of Mughal Emperor Shah Jehan, converted Gor Khuttree into a caravanserai and named it Sarai Jahanabad. She also constructed a Jamea Masjid, a sauna bath and two wells inside Sarai Jahanabad for the convenience of travellers.

The Sikhs converted the site into the residence and official headquarters of their leader who was governor of Peshawar from 1838-1842. They constructed a temple for Shiva there.

Gor Khuttree is a typical Mughal Sarai and is located on one of the highest points of Peshawar City. It is a fortified compound consisting of an area of 160 x 160 sq meters. It has two prominent gateways: one in the east and one in the west. The Gorakhnath Temple is situated in the centre, a network of cells and buildings in the southern and western side of the complex and a fire brigade building, which was built in 1912.

Dr. Farzand Ali Durrani initiated the first vertical excavations at Gor Khuttree in 1992-93 but his excavation work could not be completed due to lack of funds. However, he confirmed the city foundation went back to at least the 3rd Century BC.

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