Harappa is a city in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, about 35km (22 miles) southwest of Sahiwal.

The modern town is located near the former course of the Ravi River and also beside the ruins of an ancientfortifed city, which was part of the Cemetery H culture and the Indus Valley Civilization. The ancient city existed from about 3300 BCE until 1600 BCE and is believed to have had as many as 40,000 residents—considered large for its time. Although the Harappa Culture extended well beyond the bounds of present day Pakistan, its centres were in Sindh and the Punjab.

In 2005 a controversial amusement park scheme at the site was abandoned when builders unearthed many archaelogical artifacts during the early stages of construction work. A plea from the prominent Pakistani archaeologist Ahmed Hasan Dani to the Ministry of Culture resulted in a restoration of the site

History
The Indus Valley civilization (also known as Harappan culture) has its earliest roots in approximately 6000 BCE in Mehrgarh. The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, emergered circa 2600 BCE along the Indus River valley in Punjab and Sindh. The civilization, with a writing system, urban centers, and diversified social and economic system, was rediscovered in the 1920s after excavations at Mohenjo-daro (which means "mound of the dead") in Sindh near Sukkur, and Harappa, in Punjab south of Lahore. A number of other sites stretching from the Himalayan foothills in Punjab, India in the north, to Gujarat in the south and east, and to Balochistan in the west have also been discovered and studied. Although the archaelogical site at Harrappa was partially damaged in 1857 when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad used brick from the Harrappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artifacts have nevertheless been found.

Culture and economy
Indus Valley civilization was mainly an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were built according to totally different plans of well-laid-out streets, "differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers" weights and measures were standardized throughout the area and distinctive seals were used for identification of property and shipment of goods. Although Copper and bronze were in use, iron was unknown. "Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing; wheat, rice, and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated; and a number of animals, including the humped bull, were domesticated." Wheel-made pottery—some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs—has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites. A centralized administration has been inferred from the revealed cultural uniformity; however, it remains uncertain whether authority lay with a priestly- or a cultural person oligarchy.

Archaeology
By far the most exquisite but most obscure artifacts unearthed to date are the small, square steatite seals engraved with human or animal motifs. Large numbers of the seals have been found at Mohenjo-daro, many bearing pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a kind of script. Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, however, and despite the use of computers, the script remains undeciphered, and it is unknown if it is proto-Dravidian or proto-Sanskrit. Nevertheless, extensive research on the Indus Valley sites, which has led to speculations on both the archaeological and the linguistic contributions of the pre--Aryan population to Hinduism's subsequent development, has offered new insights into the cultural heritage of the Dravidian population still dominant in southern India. Artifacts with motifs relating to asceticism and fertility rites suggest that these concepts entered Hinduism from the earlier civilization. Although historians agree that the civilization ceased abruptly, at least in Mohenjo-daro and Harappa there is disagreement on the possible causes for its end. Invaders from central and western Asia are considered by some historians to have been "destroyers" of Indus Valley civilization, but this view is open to reinterpretation. More plausible explanations are recurrent floods caused by tectonic earth movement, soil salinity, and desertification.


While Pakistan as an Islamic country was created in 1947 it has a rich Hindu and Buddhist past, but the region has a long history of settlement and civilisation including the Indus Valley Civilisation. The Indus Valley civilisation collapsed in the middle of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Vedic Civilisation, which extended over much of northern India and Pakistan.

Punjab
The Punjabis were predominantly Hindu with large minorities of Buddhists like the rest of South Asia, when Umayyad Muslim Arab army led by Muhammad bin Qasim attacked Sindh and lower Punjab, in 713. This started the process of Islamic conversion among the population of Punjab, as well as India. This process continued for the next 10 centuries but there were significant non-Muslim populations including Hindus and later Sikhs.

• Pothohar Plateau
• Sagala
• Sialkot
• Ganeriwala
• Tulamba

The heritage of Seraikistan

Bhutta Wahan
Is situated at a distance of 16 kilometers in the North of Rahim Yar Khan, on the lost river Hakra. The village is said to be named after the name of Raja Bhutta who captured this locality after Raja Dahir. This village is also claimed to be the birth place of Sassi, the renowned heroine of Sassi-Pannun and of Ab-ul-Fazal and Fiazi, sons of Mullah Mubarik.


Islam Garh Fort
Islam Garh, the old Bhinwar Fort, was built by Rawal Bhim Singh in Samabat in 1665, as the following inscription on its gate in Babri character proves "Samabat 1665 Asuj Wadi 2, Maharaj Rawal Siri Bhim Singh ji Maharaj". The Fort is situated in the Cholistan area of Tehsil Khanpur. It is 46 kilometers south east of Baghla Fort. The fort is in a dilapidated state.

Mau Bubarik Fort
According to Tarikh-e-Murad, a fort was built by Raj Hans Karar in Mau Mubarik as a residence for his mother, hence the name Mau refers to mother in local language. The fort was taken by Shah Arghun in 1525 A.D. It was one of the six fortresses of Raj Sahasi 11. It had 20 bastions and Towers. The ramparts were about 549 meters in circumference and the walls very strongly and thickly built. Here the shrine of a saint Sheikh Hakim is of great importance.

Pattan Minara
The ruins of Pattan Minara are located at a distance of about 8 kilometers in east south of Rahim Yar Khan city. It has variously been described as the remains of Asahoka period, who built it in 250 B.C. or a Buddhist monastery. Nearby the minar, remains of a fort, a mosque and some tunnels are also visible. About 110 years ago Colonel Minchin a political agent of Ex-Bahawalpur state started the excavation of these tunnels but discontiued digging for some reasons or other. According to Colonel Toy it was the capital of the Hindu kingdom in 10 A.D. In the mid of the 18th century A.D. Fazal Elahi Khan Halani a Daupauta chief destroyed it and used its materials in the construction of Baghla and Dingar Fort.


The Kashmir Smast caves are a series of natural limestone caves, artificially expanded from the Kushan to the Shahi periods, situated in the Babozai mountains in the Mardan Valley in Northern Pakistan. According to recent scholarship based on a rare series of bronze coins and artifacts found in the region, the caves and their adjacent valley probably comprised a sovereign kingdom in Gandhara which maintained at least partial independence for almost 500 years, from c. 4th Century AD to the 9th Century AD. For most of its history, it was ruled by White Hun (or Hephthalite) governors or princes.

Description
A number of the cells have wooden interiors, carved with elaborate Hindu and Buddhist iconography. Remarkably, excavations at the Kashmir Smast site have not only brought forth artifacts of extreme historical importance but have also uncovered one of the most well organized town planning systems in ancient Gandhara. The Gazetteer of the Peshawar district 1897-1898 describes that “the name [Kashmir Smast] may be derived from the fact that the gorge here is fairly and picturesquely wooded, and this may have suggested Kashmir.” “Smast”, or “Smats” as it was referred to by colonial sources, is the Pushtu word for “cave”. Another explanation is that according to legend, the network caves was so vast that it stretched from Gandhara to the kingdom of Kashmir.

General Cunningham in “The Ancient Geography of India” and in the “Archaeological Survey Reports” outlines the principal ancient sites in Gandhara, which at that time was part of the Yusufzai subdivision. Among the sites covered is the Kashmir Smast.

The Kashmir Smast sites are described by Cunningham as cave temples situated near the summit of the Sakri ridge of Pajja, and approached from the village in Babozai in the tappah Baezai. Cunningham associated the Kashmir Smast with the cave of Prince Sudana in Mount Dantalok, described by the contemporary Chinese traveler Hsuan-tsang.

A detailed discussion of the site in the Gazeteer of the Peshawar district 1897-1898 states the following:

“This cave has not been thoroughly explored yet… A little way below the level of the cave, and opposite, there are the ruins of a small city, the walls of which still stand and are in good preservation…”

“The cave is situated on a cliff looking towards the south-west below the ridge on which the Kashmir Burj stands. A road from Pirsai crosses the ridge, which is practicable for most of the distance for a good hill pony. Another footpath leads to Babozai direct from the cave…”

It goes on to describe the layout of the caves:

“There are three chambers in the limestone rock, of which the first two open into each other, and the third is reached by a winding flight of steps. The length of the first two chambers from the entrance is 322 feet, and the height of the first about 60, and of the second about 100 feet. The width of the first cave is 81 feet and of the second 90 feet, and fully between them about 40 feet. The third cave is 80 feet high, and above 80 feet in diameter, with an opening in the roof which admits light and air, so that the air throughout is pure…”

“In the third cave there is a square temple built on a dome-shaped rock of stalagmite, which was evidently the holiest shrine. In the first cave there is an octagonal shrine just inside the entrance which contained a large wooden coffin, and in a similar shrine near the right wall some carved wooden plaques with figures of a fakir dancing and a woman giving flowers to the fakir, and portions of a wooden box were found. In the center room there is a large square shrine, and a water tank 13 feet wide, 20 feet long, and 10 feet deep. About 100 feet below the cave towards Babozai on a plateau there are remains of a considerable fort… The Kashmir Burj and another on a western spur of Pajja were also evidently outposts to guard this shrine. The entrance to the cave is difficult as the old masonry steps have fallen down and the cliff is very precipitous…”

“There are well built stone castles dating back to Buddhist times all along the northern hills. One near Saughar in Baezai is specially interesting, as the care taken to bring down in a small stone duct that scanty supply of water from a spring, which still exists in the hill above the castle or monastery, would seem to show that the water supply was not much more plentiful then than it is at present.”

What is being described here is an enclosed and fortified complex comprising a city and temples built into natural caves. The presence of walls and a water system serving the area would indicate a certain level of economic independence exerted in the region.

The Numismatic Discoveries
Given the fact that exact find data is not available for the coins of the Kashmir Smast, and that numerous symbols, legends, and images on the coins have come to light which have never before been encountered in 150 years of Hunnic numismatic study, the attribution and dating of these specimens becomes an arduous task. As we study the varieties of coins found in the Kashmir Smast, it becomes apparent that during the period of the Kidara, the Alxon, the Nazek, the Turk Shahis, and the Hindu Shahis, a minor kingdom based in this region maintained some level of autonomy from the greater Hunnic hordes which ruled Gandhara. This is evidenced by the use of hithertofore unrecorded images, stylistic peculiarities, and tamghas (royal symbols).

The bronze coins found in cave and its adjacent valley can be divided into seven groups:

1) Kushano-Sassanian. The hoard includes numerous Kushano-Sassanian bronzes of the dumpy fabric, including mostly known varieties in addition to unpublished fractionals, and a number of anonymous Hunnic imitations minted in the dumpy Kushano-Sassanian fabric.

2) Kidara. Kidarite coins in the hoard comprise the majority of unpublished specimens. The obverse of some varieties closely resemble, or are crudely rendered versions of, known Kidarite drachms. The busts portrayed on these coins are depicted wearing headdresses associated with particular Kidara princes, often in turn borrowed from contemporary Sassanian / Kushano-Sassanian monarchs. This group also includes thin AE units featuring bearded busts occasionally with Brahmi legends. As they are notably different from other recorded Kushano-Sassanian bronzes, they may be attributed to Kidarite governors or princes under Kushano-Sassanian or Sassanian sovereignty.

3) Alxon (or Alchon) Huns. The hoard includes a number of coins which are stylistically similar to the Alxon Hunnic series. Some feature the royal Hunnic tamgha, or royal symbol, most often associated with the first of the Alxon Hunnic kings in Gandhara, Khingila and his immediate successors.

4) Nezak. Common published Nazek bronzes abound in the hoard. In addition to these, a number of unpublished varieties with stylistic similarities to Nezak bronzes have also been discovered, notably featuring a trident tamgha.

5) Turko-Hephthalite. These include small AE units imitating larger silver Turko-Hephthalite drachms. They are either anepigraphic or feature Bactrian Greek legends.

6) The Shahi Kings of Kabul and Gandhara. This category includes coins stylistically similar to the coins of Samanta Deva and Spalapalati Deva, characterized by linear stylized anthropomorphic or zoomorphic representations.

7) Anonymous coins which can not be stylistically attributed to any particular Hunnic period or clan.

8) Bronze imitations of Bactrian drachms of Menander I and other dynasts.

Political and Monetary Independence
Scholars contend that the bronze currency found in the region were issued by local semi-independent governors, or Tegins, in the Kashmir Smast valley, paying allegiance to the greater Hunnic Tegins of Gandhara and Bactria. The feudal and tribal nature of the ancient Central Asian' states allowed for substantial independence to be exercised by local governors.

It is worth noting that all the new varieties found in this area are small bronze pieces, varying in weight between 0.5 and 1.1 g. (referred to as the Kashmir Smast standard). They are occasionally small versions of more common drachms circulating in the region, or feature entirely new portraits / images with some or no resemblance to commonly circulating coins of the period.

Given the fact that these pieces have not been found elsewhere in Hunnic domains, we can infer that they were not considered acceptable currency outside of the Kashmir Smast region. However, imitating the coins of the contemporary rulers of Gandhara, and employing certain of their dynastic symbols and portraits, along side a totally new set of portraits, names / titles, and symbols, may indicate that while they were issued independently for use in the local kingdom, the local rulers must have paid homage to and acknowledged their Hunnic overlords. The fact that they were allowed to use some of their own tamghas and titles and that the greater chiefs gave them the privilege of minting their own currency strengthens this argument. The minting of coins was a prerogative of the rulers, and carried with it a certain degree of governing authority. Numismatically speaking, this can be likened to the period of Hephthalite and Turk Shahi sovereignty over Sogdiana, during which civic bronze coinage circulated along side of silver drachms referencing a Hunnic or Turkic overlord (the Bukharkhoda). The fact that such independent issues continued throughout five separate dynasties, until the Hindu Shahi period, means that to a degree this principality maintained its status for perhaps as long as three to four hundred years.

The Indus Civilization site of Kot Bala is located in the interior of the Sonmiani Bay, along the Lasbela coast. It was partly excavated by Professor George F. Dales of the University of California, Berkeley in the 1970s and never published in detail. This site is of great importance for its location close to the Arabian Sea. It is supposed to be one of the main harbours from which the Indus traders sailed their ships to the coasts of the Arabian Peninsula.


The ancient site at Kot Diji was the forerunner of the Indus Civilization. The people of this site lived about 3000 BC. The remains consist of two parts; the citadel area on high ground, and outer area.

Located about 22 kilometres south of Khairpur in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. The site is situated at the foot of the hills where a fort was built by Talpur ruler Mir Suhrab (1803-30). This fort built on the ridge of a steep narrow hill is well preserved.


Prelude to Kot Diji

Neolithic Revolution in Balochistan
The so-called ‘Neolithic Revolution’ took place around 8500 – 6000 BC in Fertile Crescent. With the taming of variety of animals and domestication of wheat and barley man life style changed from nomadic to settled life in permanent homes. Being closest to Iran and Afghanistan, Baluchistan was the first region in South Asia influenced by this revolution. The earliest evidence of sedentary lifestyle in South Asia was discovered at Mehrgarh in 1979. This settlement, dated 7000BC located on the west bank of Bolan River, about 30 kilometres from the town of Sibi.

Village Culture (6000-4000BC)
By 4000BC farming communities spread further east in other parts of Baluchistan and Lower Sind. Agricultural communities settled in Brahui Hills, River Zhob Valley and along Makran coasts; respectively represented by Nal Culture, Zhob Culture and Kulli Culture.

These cultures developed in different valleys in isolation to each other with their own characteristics. Nal Culture made red pottery and practiced dead burial, where Kulli Culture burnt their dead and made small boxes of soft stone with delicately engraved linear patterns.

Pre Harappa Towns (4000-3000 BC)
The development of these farming communities in different parts of Baluchistan and Lower Sind, ultimately led to urbanization. The earliest fortified town to date is found at Rehman Dheri, dated 4000BC in NWFP close to River Zhob Valley. Other fortified towns found to date are at Amri (3600-3300BC) and Kot Diji in Sind and at Kalibangan (3000BC), India at the Hakra River. No writing was found at these sites.

Kot Diji Culture. (3000 BC)
The Pre Harappa site at Kot Diji consists of two clearly defined areas. Citadel on high ground for the elites separated by a defensive wall with bastions at regular intervals. This area measures about 500 ft x 350 ft. Outer area, or the city proper consisted of houses of mud bricks on stone foundations. Pottery found from this site have design with horizontal and wavy lines, or loops and simple triangular patterns.

Other stuff found are pots, pans, storage jars, toy carts, balls, bangles, beads, terracotta figurines of mother goddess and animals, bronze arrowheads. Well-fashioned stone implements were also discovered.

The interesting find at Kot Diji is a toy cart, which shows that potter’s wheel lead to wheels for bullock carts.

There is evidence of burning of this fortified town, which were also observed at Amri and Kalibangan. Burning of these cities is still unexplained.


Kotla Mohsin Khan was constructed in the mid 16th century in the old city of Peshawar, and today consists of two domed tombs and the famous majestic gateway through which, historically, invaders would enter the walled city it was also the residence of Mazullah Khan, seventeenth century Pashtu poet.

The last Mughal governor, Nawab Nasir Khan welcomed the Afghan King Nadir Shah Durrani and gifted him the key to Peshawar in 1741 when he visited the city. This signaled the end of the Mughal Empire in Peshawar.

According to an earlier legend, the foundation of the gate was laid down in the latter half of the 16th century in the presence of renowned personalities of the time, Shiekh Kaka Sahib and Akhund Derwaza Baba.

It is also recorded that Arbab Mustajab Khan, being the representative of the Mughals, settled disputes amongst the Ghori Khel tribes in the balconies of the building. When the Mughals arrested Khushal Khan Khattak, Arbab Mustajab Khan, secured his release from the dungeon, through his personal efforts and kept him as a guest in the castle. On the orders of the ruler of Peshawar, when Khushal Khan Khattak was sent to Delhi, Mustajab Khan also accompanied his friend. This verse by Khushal Khan Khattak says:

I was accompanied on my journey
To Hind by Mustajab,
Being a Khan, a Malik and an Arbab

The original name of this site was Kotla Mustajab Khan. It was renamed as Kotla Mohsin Khan due to the owner's close relationship with Mustajab Khan during the reign of Afghan King Ahmad Shah Durrani.

During the siege of Peshawar in 1830s, the Sikhs also burnt this site and it was later refurbished. The gate and minarets of Kotla Mohsin Khan are historical landmarks of the 16th and 17th century "Roshnai period". Bayazid Ansari alias Pir Rokhan started his religious and political movement against the Mughal emperor Akbar from this site. Allah Dad Doshani alias Rashid Khan constructed minarets at this site to conduct judicial duties.


The site of Lakhueen-jo-daro, near Sukkur, belongs to the Matura Harappan Civilization as indicated by the characteristics of the structural remains, material culture finds and one radiocarbon date, covers a wide area, from which a few mounds emerge. The site indicates that the origins of Sukkur are to be referred to a much older period than previously suspected.

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