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Old Tuesday, July 31, 2007
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Cool Mass Communication

Mass communication occurs when a small number of people send messages to a large anonymous and usually heterogeneous audience through the use of specialized communication media.

The units of analysis for mass communication are the messages, the mediums, and the audience.

Mass Communication represents the creation and sending of a homogeneous message to a large heterogeneous audience through the media. Mass communication studies the uses and effects of the media by many as opposed to the study of human interaction as in other communication contexts.

Theorie

Agenda-Setting theory

Cultivation theory

Cultural Imperialism theory

Diffusion theory

Functional Approach to Mass Communication

Human Action Approach theory

Media Dependency

Media Equation

Rules-Based theory

Spiral of Silence theory

Technological Determinism theory

Uses and Gratifications theory

Agenda Setting Theory

Explanation of Theory:

The Agenda-Setting Theory says the media (mainly the news media) aren’t always successful at telling us what to think, but they are quite successful at telling us what to think about.

Individual Interpretation:

This theory is good at explaining why people with similar media exposure place importance on the same issues. Although different people may feel differently about the issue at hand, most people feel the same issues are important.

Critique:

The Agenda-Setting Theory comes from a scientific perspective, because it predicts that if people are exposed to the same media, they will place importance on the same issues. According to Chaffee & Berger’s 1997 criteria for scientific theories, Agenda-Setting is a good theory.

It has explanitory power because it explains why most people prioritize the same issues as important.
It has predictive power because it predicts that if people are exposed to the same media, they will feel the same issues are important.
It is parsimonious because it isn’t complex, and it is easy to understand.
It can be proven false. If people aren’t exposed to the same media, they won’t feel the same issues are important.
It’s meta-theoretical assumptions are balanced on the scientific side
It is a springboard for further research
It has organizing power because it helps organize existing knowledge of media effects.

Example:
Actions surrounding the O.J. case and the Clinton Scandal are both excellent examples of Agenda-Setting in action. During these historic events, the media was ever-present. The placement of full page, color articles and top stories on news programming made it clear that Americans should place these events as important issues. Some people believed O.J. was guilty, and others believed he was innocent. Some believed Clinton should have been impeached, and others thought otherwise. Therefore, the media wasn’t extremely successful in telling us what to think on these issues, but most Americans did believe these were both important issues for a long period of time.

Cultivation Theory

Explanation of Theory:

Gerbner’s cultivation theory says that television has become the main source of storytelling in today's society. Those who watch four or more hours a day are labeled heavy television viewers and those who view less then four hours per day, according to Gerbner are light viewers. Heavy viewers are exposed to more violence and therefore are effected by the Mean World Syndrome, an idea that the world is worse then it actually is. According to Gerbner, the overuse of television is creating a homogeneous and fearful populace.

Individual Interpretations and Critique:

The cultivation theory is a scientific theory. Epistimologically speaking, Gerbner believes in one truth. The theory does not believe television viewers have a choice in whether they are effected by media violence or not. Lastly, Gerbner allows some of his own values to enter into the theory by deciding what to consider violence and by assigning a numerical value to heavy television viewing. Gerber’s idea of the effects heavy television viewing is intriguing. There is definitely support to show that those who watch great amounts of television do experience the mean world syndrome, the definition of ‘heavy’ needs to be reexamined. Gerbner defines heavy television viewing as watching four or more hours a day. The idea of setting a numerical value to try to equate heavy influence to a mass populace is suspect. While the theory does contain some holes it adequately opens the discussion dealing with effects of the media upon viewers.

Ideas and Implications:

The effects of Gerbner’s mean world syndrome can easily be seen in nursing homes. Many occupants of nursing homes watch many hours of television per day without leaving their rooms to actually see what the real world is like. Having only the media to guide their interpretation of the ‘real world’, nursing home residents believe that the world is a corrupt and violent place.

CULTURAL IMPERIALISM

Explanation of Theory:

Cultural Imperialism Theory states that Western nations dominate the media around the world which in return has a powerful effect on Third World Cultures by imposing n them Western views and therefore destroying their native cultures.

Individual Interpretations:

Western Civilization produces the majority of the media (film, news, comics, etc.) because they have the money to do so. The rest of the world purchases those productions because it is cheaper for them to do so rather than produce their own. Therefore, Third World countries are watching media filled with the Western world's way of living, believing, and thinking. The third world cultures then start to want and do the same things in their countries and destroy their own culture.

Metatheoretical Assumptions:

Ontological Assumptions:

This theory says that humans do not have the free will to chose how they feel, act, think, and live. They react to what they see on television because there is nothing else to compare it to besides their own lives, usually portrayed as less than what it should be.

Epistemological Assumptions:

This theory explains that there is one truth and no matter what that truth never going to change. As long as Third World countries continue to air Western Civilization's programs then the third world countries will always believe they should act, feel, think, and live as Western Civilizations act, feel, think, and live.

Axiological Assumptions:

This theory is value-neutral and objective. It does not matter what beliefs the people of Third World may already hold the television programs from the Western World will communicate the same message and effect them in the same way.

Critique: Scientific Theory

Explanatory Power: It explains what happens when one group of people with their own ideas sends messages through the media to a different group of people.

Predictive Power: It predicts that Third World countries' culture will be destroyed and the people will identify with Western views.

Parsimony: We can see a direct linear path from sender to receiver through the media channels and then watch the effects.

Falsifiability: The theory could be proved false should the Third World countries not be effected by Western media nd they do not lose their culture.

Internal Consistency: There is a logical flow of events and consequences within the theory.

Heuristic Provocativeness: This theory could lead to new hypotheses such as which cultures are effected more than others (if any) or whether low context differ in the reception of messages compared top high context cultures?

Organizing Power: This fits with what we already know about differences between Western civilization and Third World countries.


Example:

Several people have seen the episode of Southpark where one of the students is swapped for a "starving Ethiopian." Should someone in Ethiopia watch this cartoon, the Western stereotype of Ethiopians all starving to death will tell that person that all they are are tiny black people who cannot help themselves. If the person is not effected this way the theory is proved false but the relations between American and Ethiopian individuals will still be hurt because of those stereotypes.

DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION THEORY


Explanation of Theory:

In the Diffusion Innovation theory, communicators in society with a message influence/encourage people that have strong opinions through the media to influence the masses.

Metatheoretical Assumptions:

Ontological Assumption:
There does not seem to be free will in this case, it is fated as to what information is received to the masses, they have no choice to what they are exposed to.

Epistemological Assumption:
In this sense, the theory is scientific. There is one truth, dependent on the messages sent and received by the media and the opinion leaders.

Axiological Assumption:
I feel that Diffusion of Innovations is scientific in the values sense as well. Research being done is value neutral and not biased because what is stated is pretty much how the news is run. The masses are fed what information is important.

Critique:

I think the Diffusion of Innovations does a good job of explaining how ideas are spread and is accurate in its conclusions.

Ideas and Implications:

The Diffusion of Innovations is useful to apply in situations when trying to explain how ideas are spread through our society from the media.

Example:

An applicable example to help illustrate Diffusion of Innovations involves Christmas time specials on TV programming. These programs on harmful/popular toys influence either the opinion of and/or the decision of whether to purchase a specific toy to many shoppers.

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH TO MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY

Explanation of Theory:

There are five functional approaches the media serves users: surveillance, correlation, transmission, entertainment, and mobilization.

Individual Interpretations:

The mass media serves many functions for our society. The five elements the theorists put together describe the audience's use for the media. Surveillance means that the media provides news and information. Correlation means that the media presents the information to us after they select, interpret, and criticize it. The cultural transmission function means that the media reflects our own beliefs, values, and norms. Media also entertains us in our free time and provides an escape from everyday life. Mobilization refers to the media function of promoting society's interest especially in times of crisis.

Metatheoretical Assumptions:

Ontological Assumptions:

This theory assumes that humans have a certain amount of free will. They can use mass communication for any variety of functions but they have to use it for something. Humans can make a choice in what to watch for any variety of reasons even if it is just for noise.

Epistemological Assumptions:

The knowledge is universal and it is one truth that mass communication functions as a part of our society. It is a main source of surveillance, entertainment, correlation, transmission, and mobilization.

Axiological Assumptions:

This theory is objective and value-neutral. It does not matter what person is going to watch the television because everyone watches it for a reason.

Critique: Scientific Theory

Explanatory Power: It explains our society's use for media and mass communication.

Predictive Power: It predicts that people will use the media for specific functions.

Parsimony: It is simple because the audience has a need and the media fulfills that need.

Falsifiability: The theory could be proved false should the media become dysfunctional or nonfunctional.

Internal Consistency: The theory makes sense in that there are several functions of the media and they are not in conflict with one another. Some people can use the media for more than one function at different times.

Heuristic Provocativeness: Is there a way that the media is dysfunctional? Does the media serve the same functions now as it did 30 years ago?

Organizing Power: We know that human beings have needs so we look for ways to fill those needs. This theory organizes how the media fits in to this equation.

Example:

You have had a really long day at school and at work. You have ten things to do this week before you go home to see your parents who are convinced that you just pretend to be busy. You can not find any one to work for you and your teachers want everything perfect and now. You turn on the television to your favorite show and for half an hour you are entertained and you have no worries. The media functioned to entertain you and relieve you of your worries (temporarily).

HUMAN ACTION APPROACH

Explanation of Theory:

Human behavior can be predicted because people make choices with a purpose about their actions. Behavior is chosen by individuals to reach certain goals.

Metatheoretical Assumptions:

Ontological Assumption:
There is some fate concerning this theory, although free will does rule behavior which can be predicted when goals are observed.

Epistemological Assumption:
Since there can be many different goals assessed for a person's behavior, there are many truths that could be possible for this humanistic theory.

Axiological Assumption:
Values definitely play a part in this humanistic theory- which ones are more important to an individual are the ones that goals will be modeled after and could be used to track behavior.

Critique:

This theory is used as a measure to provide better understanding of behavior that has already occurred, it says nothing about future behavior.

Ideas and Implications:

The Human Action Approach is useful to apply in situations when trying to explain behavior that has already occurred. Studying historical events or known past experiences could use the Human Action Approach.

Example:

An applicable example to help illustrate the Human Action Approach is a group of people listening to a persuasive speech about smoking and lung cancer. Fear appeals had nothing to do with changing people's minds. They were presented with new information- that stopping smoking increases life expectancy even for former smokers- that was what led the audience members to quit. There was a change in behavior because the audience saw living longer as a goal.

Media Dependency Theory

Explanation of Theory:

This theory states that the more dependent an individual is on the media for having his or her needs fulfilled, the more important the media will be to that person.

Individual Interpretation:

This theory is based on the Uses and Gratifications Theory and ties into the Agenda Setting Theory. Uses and Grats identifies how people use and become dependent upon the media. People use the media for many reasons. Information, entertainment, and parasocial relationships are just a few of them. The Dependency Theory says the more a person becomes dependent on the media to fulfill these needs, the media will become more important to that individual. The media will also have much more influence and power over that individual. If someone is so dependent on the media for information, and the media is that person’s only source for information, then it is easy to set the agenda. The individual falls victim to Agenda Setting. As you can see, these three theories intertwine quite a bit.


Critique:

Media Dependency Theory is Relatively Scientific in nature. It predicts a correlation between media dependence and importance and influence of the media, but each person uses the media in different ways. Also, the media affects each person in different ways. According to Chaffee & Berger ‘s 1997 criteria for scientific theories, this theory is a pretty good one.


It has explanatory power, but more of predictive power because it predicts how dependency on the media correlates with importance of the media to a certain person.
It is relatively simple to understand, so it is parsimonious.
It can be proven false. If a person is not dependent on the media, media will not be of great importance to that individual.
It is internally consistent, with meta-theoretical assumptions on the same side of the continuum.
It is a springboard to further research, especially so, since it came from other theories.
It helps to organize and relate other media effect theories.

Example:
Let me introduce you to Sunny, a friend of mine from Los Angeles who now resides in Lexington, KY. When Sunny lived in L.A., he would ask his mother what the weather was going to be for the day. It was usually sunny. Now that he lives in Lexington, where the weather is sporadic, Sunny uses the media for information about the weather. Every morning, he gets up and turns on the weather channel on the television, reads the paper, and checks the internet, all for the local forecast for the day. He has become very dependent on the media. One month, Sunny forgot to pay the electric bill, and his service was disconnected. He didn’t know what to do. He had no idea what to put on for the day, because he relied so heavily upon the media for information. Sunny could have easily looked outside or called a friend, but he was depending on the media to provide him with the information he needed.


TO BE CONTINUED........
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