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RICE


INTRODUCTION

Rice makes up the genus Oryza, of the family Gramineae. Common rice is classified as Oryza sativa. Rice is an annual crop with stalks from 3 to 6 ft. high. The number of grain in the head varies from 30-100 and in some cases upto 400, each enclosed in a hull. About 40% of the world’s population depend upon rice as their staple diet, and in this respect rice is equaled only by wheat. In production, rice is second only to wheat among the agricultural products. Rice is largely carbohydrate but is low in protein and fat. Thus it forms an unbalanced diet.

ORIGIN

All authorities accept monsoon Asia as the home of rice, but the exact place of its origin is not known. Most of research works give this credit to either Southeast Asia or India. Ancient records reveal that this grain crop was being cultivated in India and China in 3000 BC. The Greeks, during the reign of Alexander-the great, brought the seed from India to their home. In China, rice was used in a royal ceremony as early as 2800 BC. The Arabs introduced it in the Mediterranean lands, and the Malayans in Madagascar. In Egypt and other parts of northern Africa, rice was grown in early times, but was not in common use. In west Africa, Asian varieties of rice were introduced by the Portuguese. Before that west Africa used to grow indigenous varieties. After 1468, it was introduced at Pisa in Italy from where its cultivation spread to many other countries of Europe providing favorable conditions. In USA cultivation began in 1694. Rice was taken to the Americas from the Iberian Peninsula.

VARIETIES

There thousands of varieties of rice but generally speaking, there are two main types;

Upland Rice

The upland rice is grown on hills and high lands with heavy rainfall. Upland is rice sown without irrigation in the months of March and April and becomes mature within 5.5 to 6 months. Hence its harvesting taking place in September – October. This is a draught resisting type of rice. It is usually grown in the higher elevation and rugged topography. This variety of rice totally depends on natural rains for its water requirements.
It is generally grown in the system of Shifting Cultivation. The forest on the hill slopes are cleared and rice is sown. In a year or two, the land becomes depleted and a new forest is cleared. The yield is low and the quality inferior. That is why upland accounts for only 5% of the rice acreage. Its use is also confined totally to local consumption and does not enter into any sort of trade.

Lowland Rice

Lowland rice occupy 95% of the total rice acreage. Lowland rice requires a lot of irrigation water during its sowing and harvesting season. This variety of seed is firstly sown in small seed beds, entirely covered with water. When the plant becomes 12-13 cm in height, it is transplanted from the seed beds to larger fields. The transplantation is done mainly by women and children and the practice is referred to as Ropai. Rice is largely produced in the low, hot and heavy rainfall regions of southern China, Kampuchea, Thailand, Vietnam, Taiwan, Japan, Burma, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sir Lanka and India. Heavy rainfall and high temperature throughout the growing season is essential for rice growth.
In monsoon Asia, small rice fields are found with low ridges to impound the rain or irrigation water. Hill slopes have been laboriously terraced and embankments have been built at their outer edges to hold water. In the USA, where the fields are large, contour levees have been built for the purpose. A special variety of rice, called Floating Rice, is grown in deeply flooded areas. It attains a height of 8-16 ft. and grows with the rising level of water.
Another variety is the post flood rice, e.g., Boro rice of Bangladesh. It is grown during the winter season in marshy areas. This rice is laboriously transplanted and irrigated.

YIELD

Yield of rice varies greatly. In Pakistan, India and Bangladesh, yield is low (2000-2500 kg/hectare). On the other hand, China, Korea, USA and Japan produce more than 5000 kg/hectare.

----------------YIELD (Kg/Hectares)
COUNTRY-------1979-81-------1988


World------------2756-------3320
Korea(DPR)-------6264-------7175
Korea(REP)-------5513-------6667
USA--------------5167------6178
Japan------------5581-------5825
China------------4244-------5304
Vietnam----------2097-------2714
India-------------1853-------2487
Pakistan----------2486------2360
Bangladesh-------1952-------2190

GEOGRAPHICAL OR PHYSICAL CONDITIONS

TEMPERATURE

Rice a cereal grown in tropical and sub-tropical regions. It requires high temperature. During the growing season, temperature should not be less than 70 oF. In regions, having less than 40” of rainfall, even more temperature is required. During ripening season, a temperature of 80 oF is required, but for a brief period.

RAINFALL

It requires a large amount of moisture. Therefore, swampy places with abundant water, either of rain or river, are suitable for rice growth. The supply of moisture must be plentiful. It hardly thrives in areas where the rainfall is below 40” (1000 mm), except where irrigation is practised. The annual rainfall should not be less than 40”. Enough water is necessary during the growing season of 4-6 months. Before the crops begin to ripen, light and frequent showers of rain increase the yield of the crops. Rice is best grown in the fields where water can stay at certain stages of its growth. The quantity of water in the field should vary with its different stages of growth. During the germination of seeds, 2” are enough but when it grows to some height and the stem becomes strong, the field must have about 6” water. For 75 days, the rice fields should have 6” (150 mm) of slow moving water. The rice plants keep their heads bathing in the sun and their feet submerged in water. Experiments reveal that during floods, rice crop grows very rapidly and it is recorded that within 24 hours there is a further addition of 9” to the height of the stalk. It is also necessary that the flow of water should not be rough at any early stage, otherwise there is very possibility that tiny rice crops will be uprooted.
When the crops mature, less water is required, and during ripening season the field is almost dry to facilitate harvesting. In low lying areas of Bangladesh, it is generally seen that the field is flooded with water, even at the time of harvesting and it is done through small crude boats. There is a significant fall in yield of rice when matured rice crops are under water and ready reaping.
Rice is the crop of the region where rain comes in summer, but is not grown in the savanna lands where rainy season is too short. Neither it is produced in the equatorial region, where there is no dry season for harvesting. The monsoon presents the ideal conditions as summer hot and rainy season long.
The root of rice crop should remain submerged in water for a long time, therefore it is a crop of the level lands, like the river valleys and coastal plains. To secure this, hill slopes are laboriously terraced in China, Taiwan, Java, and other countries.

SOILS

Rice is grown on different soils but alluvial soils are suitable for the rich growth of rice. Heavy, clayey sub-soil with water retaining capacity gives better result. An impervious sub-soil to allow free development of roots is very productive. The river plains with fertile silt at the tops and impervious clay bed blow are recognized as the best rice fields.

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

Economic conditions have combined with physical conditions to make Asia’s monsoon lands the main rice growing regions in the world. The majority of world’s population inhabits this area. The thick population is a boon for rice cultivation. In all stages of its cultivation – ploughing, sowing, weeding, harvesting, threshing and winnowing – a large number of labor is required as most of the work is done by hands. No tropical grain yields so large an amount of food as rice. Rice feeds more persons from one acre of land, so the Asian countries adopted to this crop to feed the thick population. Sowing is either done by broadcast or by transportation. The second method is most prevailing as it ensures higher yields. It involves the growing of small rice plants in nursery beds and their transplantation by hands to the fields. Two and even three harvests are possible from the same field in one season, if the conditions are favorable. In some parts of Bangladesh, rice is harvested thrice in a year to meet the local requirements of population.

TRADITIONAL FACTORS

The cultivators of Asia are indolent and conservative. They honor their past traditions and practices and rice cultivation being firmly entrenched in them, it is difficult to pursued them to change to any other profitable crop. They grow rice without intelligent selection of other profitable crops. They grow rice because this is the practice of the others now living and of many generation gone before. The argument with them for practicing other profitable crops is just like extracting sugar from a dried sugarcane. They have carried the practice of rice cultivation to far off lands whenever they have migrated, e.g., Mauritius, Madagascar, Trinidad, Jamaica, Guiana etc.

AREAS OF PRODUCTION

ASIA


The bulk of rice is grown in the lands of Asia. All the river valleys from the Yangtze-Kiang to the Indus, and the coastal plains, from Korea to India are given to rice. Even the hill slopes have been utilized. They have been laboriously terraced and intelligently irrigated. The Yangtze-Kiang, Sikang, Mekong river, Menam, Irrawaddy (river in Myanmar), Salween (river in Tibet), Ganges and Indus have led down rich alluvium and also renew the soils every year. They are in many parts underlain by a clayey sub-soil and have thus attracted the rice cultivators. The rice production has made these valleys the most densely populated areas. But the best rice fields are located in the regions where the rivers meet the coastal plains.

Monsoon Lands of Asia

Monsoon Asia is the largest producer of rice in the world. Almost in every country of monsoon Asia rice accounts for more than 40% of the sown area. Important rice growing areas are China, Japan, Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. The deltas of the mighty rivers of monsoon Asia specially noted for rice production. More than 75% of the cultivated lands of Bangladesh and 50% of Japan are given to rice cultivation.

China

China leads the world in the production of rice. Its production has been increased by 70% from 1948-52 to 1971-75 and by another 25% from 1980 to 1989. Rice is by far the most important, but wheat is increasing in its distribution and is the staple food of the north. Rice crop in China does not extend beyond 32o or 31o north latitude, and in general terms it is true that the rice belt of China extends south of this limit.
Rice is grown in most parts of China but the main rice growing area lies to the south of the Chinting Shan (Tsingting Shan) mountain range, which coincides well with 30 oC January isotherm and 750 mm (30”) annual isohyet. Within this region rice is the predominant crop and is grown on terraced hill slopes, undulating plateaus and flood plains.
There are, however, four principal areas of rice cultivation:
1. The Yangtze delta and central Yangtze lake plain;
2. The Szechwan Basin, particularly in the Chengdu plain;
3. The southern Kwangtung or Guangdong coastal plain, particularly in delta areas around Canton (Kwangchow or Guangzhou , new name); and,
4. South central Yunnan
Among the rice bearing regions, the first is the great valley of the Yangtze and its tributaries. In the upper it reaches in Szechwan the plain, Chengdu is favored in rice growing as in other commodities, and lower down the river, the valley bottom of Hwang Ho is largely devoted to the rice culture.
In China, about 95% of the total rice area is given to low land rice (Shui-Tao), and 5% to upland rice (Han-Tao) . a third type, Tsai-Sheng Tao, has the unique characteristic of producing two crops yearly from the same plant. It is a lowland rice which is sown in April and harvested in August. The land is then hoed and the second crop comes up from the same plant which is harvested in October.
The Yangtze valley is a crop region, where rice is grown in April and harvested in August or September. In the Kwangtung coastal region two crops are obtained. The first is sown in March and harvested in June or July; and the second is sown in late June or July and harvested in November or early December.
In many sections of central China where short growing season or deficient water supply permits only one crop, a second crop is obtained by inter-planting a late variety between rows of an early variety at the same time.

Japan

Rice is the chief crop and occupies about 50% of the tilled land in Japan. Japan is the only country in the world which eradicates wheat from its main islands. Rice is grown in all the prefectures (highest degree of excellence) of Japan. This underscores the pervasive nature of rice cultivation and its importance in the farm economy. Paddy is primarily a wet crop and is cultivated mainly in irrigated areas of areas with assured rainfall. Irrigated rice dominates the low alluvial filled valleys and coastal plains, and occupies 42% of the all arable land. Rice is grown on most of the coastal lowlands, river valleys and on the slopes wherever terracing is possible.
One seventh of the rice in Japan is grown in Kwanto-Hokkaido plain. Hokkaido is the northern most island where the rice is grown. The area of rice fields in Hokkaido is rapidly increased after 1900. The Northeast coast of Honshu has little rice because of unfavorable temperature in August, but on the pacific side, Kyushu and Shikoku produce two crops.
The industrial Japanese farmer takes great care of his rice fields. Elaborate irrigation arrangements, application of heavy doses of fertilizers at regular intervals, transportation and weeding have made rice culture a type of garden farming. Therefore, some of the highest yield of rice is obtained in Japan.

Bangladesh

Bangladesh is only next to China, India and Indonesia in production of rice. Most of the rice is grown in the lowlands of Bangladesh, though a small quantity is also produced in the uplands of the Chittagong Hill Tracts.
Rice cultivation in Bangladesh is almost done without any manuring of the fields. It is only recently that green manuring or chemicals and fertilizers are being advocated. However, large areas of Bangladesh are subjected to annual river flood, resulting in considerable deposits of silt which help the land to regain fertility.
In Bangladesh three main types of rice are grown:
• Aus; sown in March-April and harvested in July-August;
• Aman; sown in June and harvested in Novembers-December; and,
• Boro; sown in January and harvested in April-May.
Aman is the chief crop and Boro has the least importance. Boro is mainly grown in Bil (marshy) areas and Aus on river levees. The methods of cultivation are primitive but new techniques are being introduced.


India

India is the second largest producer of rice in the world. Rice is by far the most important crop in India, from the point of hectareage and the number of people it supports. Except China, India produces and, perhaps, consumes also the larget amount of rice in the world. 40” (1000 mm) annual isohyet demarcates the western boundary of the main rice growing area.
The Ganges-Brahmapatra Valley and the coastal plains are the principal rice regions. Most of the Indian supplied from West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Orissa, Madhy Pradesh and Karanatka. Generally speaking, about 1/3rd of the total crop is contributed by the two states, Bengal and Tamil Nadu; while Bihar and Orissa contribute about another 1/3rd.
Lowland rice constitutes the bulk of Indian production. Upland variety is grown mostly in the Chota Nagpur Plateau and Assam. Rice is transported and also sown broadcast.
Rice is considered generally as a winter crop in India as over whole of the country it is harvested mainly from November to January. The sowing lasts from April to August for most of the varieties grown in India. But in the main rice producing areas of Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Orissa and Tamil Nadu, there are autumn and summer crops of rice as well. The rice season in Tamil Nadu varies greatly. The first crop is sown between May and December and gathered from September to April. The second crop is sown between October and March and harvested between January and June. While the greater part of the crop is wet rice, dry rice is grown in plateau and Himalayan slopes, and in recent years this crop has shown a tendency to increase.
Although India ranks 2nd among the rice producing countries, the yield per hectare is low. The methods of rice cultivation are some of the most primitive in the world and hence the yield is very low.

Pakistan

Rice is the second principal food crop of the people. It is an important food as well as commercial crop. It occupies about 10% of total cropped area. Pakistan produces considerable quantity of rice. On an average, 1/3rd of the production is exported every year. The rice areas are located in the Indus valley.
The government of Pakistan is taking effective steps to increase the yield production, quality and export of rice. Research efforts are continuing on developing high yielding Basmati and Irri varieties. Emphasis is also being laid on agronomic research, as well as on improved extension services, fertilizer use, direct seeding etc. The flow of inputs and credits is also being substantially increased. Spray is also provided to the rice cultivators at subsidized rates.

YEAR----------AREA-----PRODUCTION-----YIELD

-------------(000 Hec.)---(000 Tons)----(Kg/Hec.)

1955-56-------1275-------270.00-------- 212.00
1983-84-------1998-------3339.00-------1671.00
1984-85-------1998-------3315.00-------1659.00
1985-86-------1683-------2919.00-------1734.00
1986-87-------2062-------3496.00-------1695.00
1988-89-------1940-------3160.00-------1710.00
1989-90-------2115-------3222.00-------1510.00
1991-92-------2097-------3243.00-------1546.00
1992-93-------1934-------3083.00-------1579.00
1993-94-------2187-------3995.00-------1827.00
1994-95-------2125-------3447.00-------1622.00
1995-96-------2162-------3966.00-------1834.00



Southeast Asia

Rice is an important crop of southeast Asia, though its relative importance varies from country to country. Rice is cultivated in Thailand, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia and Indonesia. In Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines, rice comes in competition with plantation crops like rubber, tea, sugarcane, coconut and others. The rice industry is the second most important economic activity in terms of labor employment and land utilization. Burma is an important producer. In Tenasserim Coast (Burma) and many other parts, two crops of rice are raised. In the rich alluvial valleys of the Irrawaddy River in Burma, the Menam in Thailand and the Mekong in Indonesia, natural conditions favor rice production.
In most areas of Southeast Asia, rice is a summer crop, but in Red River delta, a winter crop is also harvested because of rains in the winter season. In Java and some other islands of Indonesia, two crops are grown in a year taking advantage of both southwest and northeast monsoons.
The chief areas of rice concentration southeast Asia are the coastal plains, river valleys and deltas. In Java, terraced rice fields are found on slopes upto an altitude of 3500 to 4000 ft. Irrigation is widely practised for rice cultivation in Southeast Asia, but mostly the flood water is utilized for the purpose. In the valleys of Menam, Mekong and Red River (Vietnam), canal irrigation is also practised.

OTHER AREAS

Asian migrants have carried rice to far off lands, such as Madagascar and Mauritius. The Arabs introduced it in the Mediterranean lands and the Europeans into the Americas.

Africa

Madagascar

In Madagascar, rice occupies 3/4th of the cultivated acreage. Two rice crops are grown in the irrigated lowlands during winter, and in the highlands during the rainy summer season. The yield is low. The highland is self-sufficient in rice and exports a small quantity of quality rice.

Egypt

After wheat and maize, rice is the 3rd major cereal crop of Egypt. Its production is confined in the delta region, particularly in the newly reclaimed marshy lands. Because of the great demand of water, rice acreage is strictly controlled by the government. Egypt is noted for high yields of rice about 6,000 kg/hectare.

Europe

Italy and Spain are the major European countries where rice cultivation is carried on. In Spain, the chief areas of production are the coastal plains along the Mediterranean and the delta of the Ebro River. In Italy, the Po Valley is the chief region. Irrigation is extensively practised. The yields of rice in the Mediterranean Europe are high. Rice is also grown in Portugal, and Greece. It is also cultivated in the Danubian Plain of Hungary and in some areas of France.

Americas

USA

In USA, rice cultivation was introduced in South Carolina towards the close of 17th century. From there it migrated southward, and westward, and today it is well-established in Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas and California. Louisiana is leading state in rice production.
Like other grain crops, rice cultivation is a mechanized operation in USA. Rice grows in large fields. Sowing and spreading of fertilizer and chemicals for weed control by aeroplanes is now a common feature, otherwise grain drill or broadcast seeder is used. For harvesting and threshing, combines are generally used. In most areas, power driven pumps lift water from streams into irrigation canals, while in some areas, artesian wells are used.

Latin America

In Latin America, rice is produced in many countries namely Mexico, Cuba, Columbia, Peru, Brazil and others. Of them, Brazil is the leading producer. Rice is produced in many parts of Brazil, particularly in Sao Paulo, and Rio Grande de Sul.

North America

North America grow about 5% of the world’s rice. In North America, the tropical states and the Piedmount regions are the chief producers of rice. Rice is, however, cultivated to some extent in the canal irrigated areas of Sacramento Valley.

TRADE

The bulk of rice is produced in Asian countries of subsistence economy. Therefore, international trade in rice is limited to about 5% of the total production.

Exports

Before World War II, India, Japan, China and Indonesia, which formed the species of rice growing triangle in Asia were the main importers. Burma, Thailand and Vietnam, which formed the heart of that triangle were the main exporters. The exporting countries were not large producers of rice but had considerable surplus because they were relatively, thinly populated. During 1936-40, they accounted for 64% of the world rice export, but produced only 12% of the world rice.
The World War II completely disrupted the pattern of world trade in rice. Japan over-ran the surplus areas of Southeast Asia. There production became so low that it was difficult for them to meet their own needs. In the vacuum, thus created, Brazil and Egypt stepped in. Soon after the war, the reconstruction started. Conditions since then have improved considerably. Burma regained the leading position in rice export and continued to hold their position since 1963. After that it exports registered a steady decline. Thailand commanded leading position in rice export for a short period (1964-66) and then settled down to the second position. It has again emerged as the leading exporter. Vietnam, Pakistan and China are other important exporter in Asia.
USA is the world leader in rice export outside Asia. It acquired this position in 1967. Rice in the USA is primarily produced for export. Egypt, Italy, America and Brazil are other important exporters outside Asia.

Imports

Asia not only leads in production and export of rice, but in its imports also. Indonesia, Malaysia, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Hong Kong are heavy importers. In these countries rice is a staple food. Rice production in these countries except in Hong Kong, is considerable but it is not sufficient to feed their large population.
Former USSR, UK and Cuba are other important importers. Recently the Gulf states have emerged as importers to meet the needs of rice eating migrants.

Pakistan’s Trade

Rice is an important export of Pakistan and an important source of foreign earnings. Pakistan exports a huge quantity of rice. In 1995-96, 1,015,347 tons export of rice amounted to 334.8 million dollars. The important importers of Pakistani rice are Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, Brazil and Iran.
Pakistan has virtually monopoly in the trade of Basmati rice. The major market for Basmati rice is the Middle East. The Irri rice has a less export potential. Sir Lanka and Bangladesh, the main importers of Irri rice, are now becoming self sufficient in rice production.

Year-------Value (million Rs.)-------Quantity (million tons)
1986-87-------5.139--------------1.270
1987-88-------6.404--------------1.210
1988-89-------5.967--------------0.854
1989-90-------5.144--------------0.744
1990-91-------7.848--------------1.205
1991-92-------10.340--------------1.512
1992-93-------8.218--------------1.032
1993-94-------7.319--------------0.984
1994-95-------14.026--------------1.852
1995-96-------11.232--------------1.015
1996-97
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