In the beginnning of 17th century, Europeans, particularly British, started trading in the subcontinent. Merchants of the East India Company never imagined that British presence in the subcontinent could mean anything more than peaceful trading. French arrived in the middle of the 17th century, signalling the beginning of militarization. Within 100 years the French were a spent force and the British possessed the most efficient military machine in the subcontinent.

British Influence:

As Mughal power declined, British influence increased. Indian rulers proved very undisciplined when it came to facing British army and therefore, there was no problem in defeating Indian cavalry.

In 1775, the Company was found to be corrupt and a regulatory act gave the government control over Company officials. In 1784 the Indian Act left the Company solely incharge of commerce. Motivated by Imperialism, the British began to annex states, offering troop protection against aggressive neighbors in return of loyalty and sizeable subsidies. By 1818, Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and a tract of land north of the Ganges running up to Delhi were firmly in British hands.

Sikh vs. British:

British could not take over Punjab because Sikhs held a dominant force under the ruler Ranjit Singh. Punjab had been the home of the Sikhs since the late 15th century. In 1799, Lahore was taken over by Sikh emperor Ranjit Singh and under his rule, Punjab was virtually harmless from British invasion. After Rangit Singh's death in 1839, British finally moved in and Sikh empire began to collapse.

Kashmir Conspiracy:

The consequences of the first Sikh war (1846) had major repercussions for another state, Kashmir. Before being taken by Ranjit Singh, it had been ruled alternatively by Mughals and Afghans. Kashmir was then 90% Muslim, but after the siege of Multan in 1819 Ranjit Singh wanted to reward one of his leaders, Gulab Singh, a Hindu. He was duly granted the estate of Jammu.

In 1841 Gulab Singh allowed British troops to march through his territory on their way to do battle in Afghanistan. During the Sikh wars, he had refused to help the Sikhs, and was once again rewarded, this time by the British. The prize was worth his treachery: in 1846, he received Kashmir by the treaty of Amritsar. The granting of the control of Kashmir to a Hindu began a struggle which has not finished to this day.

Sindh and the Indus:

British first stepped on Sindhi soil in 1809 when a diplomatic mission visited the Talpur Mirs. The British saw the importance of the Indus River, believing it could be an important commercial highway. In 1839, they seized Karachi, Sukkur and Bukkur. By 1843, Sir Charles Napier had secured the province of Sindh for the British.

North West Frontier Province:

At the far northwest of the Punjab, this was the tribal highland area belonging to the Pathans. Since the Punjab annexation, there had been a bitter and bloody struggle between The Pathans and the British. Beyond settled areas, the British initially tolerated a degree of tribal independance, but used hostage taking, blockades, subsidies and punitive expeditions to ensure the area's security. With North West Frontier under control, British went on to capture northern Pakistan such as Gilgit, Hunza and Chitral. From the fear of Russian intrusion, the British fenced a border between Afghanistan and NWFP, the famous Durand Line, in 1893.

Baluchistan:

To the west, Baluchistan with its borders to Persia and Afghanistan, was of great strategic importance. The routes through Bolan Pass to Quetta and beyond were vital. Again the British faced the tribal problem, solved by the same kinds of measures used to subdue the Pathans. By the 1890s Baluchistan was largely pacified and stabilised.

The British Raj:

The Indian Mutiny erupted in isolated areas in 1857. There were bloody uprisings in Meerut, Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow. British reprisals were exceptionally brutal. The soldiers petitioned the last Mughal Bahadur Shah Zafar, who was officially up to this time the sovereign ruler of the Mughal Empire, to be their figurehead. The British exiled him to Burma where he died in 1862.

Control now passed from the East India Company to the Crown and the company was dissolved. The Crown's representative in India was now the Viceroy, who had almost absolute authority.

India prospered during the British rule. Agricultural output was increased manifold. The railway network was setup, which provided a major contribution to the boom. Trade was expanded and industrial development was on the rise.

On the political front, after the mutiny, most factions of Indian society expressed absolute loyalty to the Raj. And despite the fact that the British tried to blame the Muslims for the mutiny, support from the Muslim westernized elite did not diminish. Some Muslims saw that they had difficult times ahead, wondering how they should assimilate to developments under the British while still holding on to their traditions.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan:

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1818-1898) emerged as the main advocate of reforming Muslim society towards progress, representing a feeling that a rejection of the British would only result in the Muslims of India disappearing into oblivion. He wanted advantages for Muslims and was keen for the reform of Muslim education. He stressed that science was not anti-Islamic. In 1875, the British gave him a grant to found the Mohammadan Anglo-Oriental college which later became Aligarh University. From here, a stream of educated Muslims went into government services.

Indian National Congress:

In 1885, the Indian National Congress was formed. The party began to fight for a devolution of power into Indian hands. Although some leading Muslims were members, it was viewed with suspicion by most, including Sir Syed, as being a Hindu body which would only ever represent Hindu interests.

All India Muslim League:

In 1906, All India Muslim League was formed to promote feelings of loyalty to the British and advance Muslim political interests. They petitioned the Viceroy that in any political move, Muslim interests be taken into account. The 1909 India Councils Act rewarded Muslim loyalty. The act gave Muslims separate electorates, where they could elect their own representatives to the Legislative Council. Some people claim that this move foreshadowed the birth of Pakistan.

Turnaround:

Muslims began to feel isolated and their fears were boosted by European attacks on Muslim countries such as the fight against Turkey in the First World War. They saw Britian leading a Christian crusade against Islam. More and more Muslims decided to transfer to the Congress party. In 1916, the Muslim League and the Congress signed the Lukhnow Pact: Congress accepted separate Muslim electorates in return for League support in its cause to drive out the British.

Mohammad Ali Jinnah:

Mohammad Ali Jinnah (1875-1948) was initially a Congress member and endeavored to bring about the political union of Muslims and Hindus. He left Congress in 1920. but the turning point came when Congress leaders ignored Muslim demands for one third of the seats in any future parliaments. Jinnah never trusted Congress after several exclusions of Muslim interest in Congress decisions. He worked furiously to amass Muslim support for teh League to show the world that the League and the League only was the true representation of India's Muslims.

Pakistan Resolution:

In March 1940, Jinnah submitted the Lahore Resolution, also known as Pakistan Resolution. In it was the essence of Pakistan:

"The Muslims and the Hindus belong to two different religious philosophies: they neither intermarry nor interdine.... Muslims are a nation and according to any definition of a nation they must have their homelands, their territory, their state."

The idea of separate Muslim state was gaining favor, despite opposition from the Congress. It led to terrible violence as Muslims and Hindus turned on each other in an atmosphere of unease about the future.

Independence:

Viceroy Lord Louis Mountbatten announced that Pakistan would receive its independence on 14th August 1947. Indians had to vote: were they to stay in India or Pakistan? Baluchistan, NWFP and Sindh voted to join Pakistan directly. Various kingdoms in the north, including Gilgit and Hunza, also acceeded to Pakistan, though they were originally designated as part of Hindu ruled Kashmir. When the deadline passed, Kashmir still hadn't decided. New boundaries were drawn up dividing Bengal and the Punjab. The announcement of the new border resulted in the greatest migration in the human history, as some seven to eight million Muslims left India and the same number of Hindus made the journey in opposite direction. In Karachi on 14th August 1947, the flag of Pakistan flew for the first time. Governor General of the new Islamic state was Mohammad Ali Jinnah.

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