Principles of Communication
Outline
- Introduction
- Oral Communications
- Visual Communications
- Written Communications
Introduction
Interpersonal communication is the foundation of human interaction. Its importance for innovation and change can hardly be overemphasized. In this section, communication from different viewpoints including listening and speaking is ex.
Objectives
* To introduce communication and to demonstrate the importance of communication in a variety of contexts including that of the manager of innovation and change.
* To evaluate and discuss the characteristics of good communication and how to improve our communication.
Communication is a two-way process of giving and receiving information through any number of channels. Whether one is speaking informally to a colleague, addressing a conference or meeting, writing a newsletter article or formal report, the following basic principles apply:
* Know your audience.
* Know your purpose.
* Know your topic.
* Anticipate objections.
* Present a rounded picture.
* Achieve credibility with your audience.
* Follow through on what you say.
* Communicate a little at a time.
* Present information in several ways.
* Develop a practical, useful way to get feedback.
* Use multiple communication techniques.
Communication is complex. When listening to or reading someone else's message, we often filter what's being said through a screen of our own opinions. One of the major barriers to communication is our own ideas and opinions.
There's an old communications game, telegraph, that's played in a circle. A message is whispered around from person to person. What the exercise usually proves is how profoundly the message changes as it passes through the distortion of each person's inner "filter."
Environmental factors
Communication can be influenced by environmental factors that have nothing to do with the content of the message. Some of these factors are:
* the nature of the room, how warm it is, smoke, comfort of the chair, etc
* outside distractions, what is going on in the area.
* the reputation/credibility of the speaker/writer.
* the appearance, style or authority of the speaker.
* listener's education, knowledge of the topic, etc.
* the language, page layout, design of the message.
People remember:
* 10% of what they read
* 20% of what they hear
* 30% of what they see
* 40% of what they hear and see
Communication with Decision Makers
Innovation and change often depends upon persuading potential users of the benefits of an innovation. To deal persuasively with decision makers, it is necessary to know and understand their interests and opinions. The following questions are helpful in organizing technology
transfer efforts:
* Who are the key people to persuade?
* Who will make the decisions about innovation and change?
* What are these decision makers' past experiences with innovation and change?
* What are the decision makers' current attitudes toward innovation and change? Are they neutral, friendly, hostile or apathetic?
* What is the most appropriate way to approach the decision maker?
* What are the work styles of the decision makers? Are they highly formal people who want everything in writing and all appointments scheduled in advance? Or are they more flexible, responding favorably to personal telephone calls and informal meetings?
* What networks or groups is the decision maker a part of?
* What programs or services will the new innovation improve?
* What programs or services will the new innovation cause problems with?
* How will the innovation or change benefit the decision maker?
Principles of Effective Persuasion
Whether making a formal presentation at a meeting or writing a report or fact sheet, the following principles hold.
* Do not oversell or overstate your case. Make effective use of understatement.
* Outline the topic you are trying to cover into two parts. The first part should give broad background information, while the second part provides a detailed summary.
* Persuasion depends on clarity and simplicity. Avoid the use of jargon and buzz words.
* Be prepared to back up claims or facts immediately.
* Incorporate major anticipated objections into your program or presentation.
* Address all relevant aspects of a topic, especially those that may affect the functioning of an organization.
* Use graphics and audiovisuals appropriately.
* Consider ways to get meaningful input from people. Find out what they think about the innovation or change.
Selling New Ideas
Creating Isn't Selling. Often the creators of an innovation feel that convincing others of the idea's value is somehow superfluous to their activities. To them, conceiving the idea is enough. This combines with their inner conviction that their idea will "sell itself." Change agents provide a link between creators of new techniques and users.
Ideas Need Selling
Someone must recognize when an idea is good. It is important that when an idea is good it is sold to those who can act on it--those who have the power to evaluate and adopt it. Understanding users is an important activity for any change agent. People must be convinced that a particular idea or innovation has enough merit to warrant adoption.
Selling Ideas Takes Effort
Selling innovations requires preparation, initiative, patience, and resourcefulness. It may take more effort than originating the idea. In an age of technical complexity and information overload, new ideas seldom stand out. Information on new ideas must be targeted to the appropriate users and relate to their needs and motivations.
Once is Not Enough
A new idea has to be suggested many times before it will "catch on." Initial failures at promoting a new idea are to be expected, so don't get discouraged if you don't get the results you want the first time. Some ideas take years to catch on. However, first exposures are crucial to future prospects. Do it right the first time
Feedback (Listening)
Getting and giving feedback is one of the most crucial parts of good communication. Like any other activity, there are specific skills that can enhance feedback. Listening is a key part of getting feedback:
Listen to the Complete Message. Be patient. This is especially important when listening to a topic that provokes strong opinions or radically different points-of-view. In these situations, it's important not to prejudge the incoming message. Learn not to get too excited about a communication until you are certain of the message.
Work at Listening Skills. Listening is hard work. Good listeners demonstrate interest and alertness. They indicate through their eye contact, posture and facial expression that the occasion and the speaker's efforts are a matter of concern to them. Most good listeners provide speakers with clear and unambiguous feedback.
Judge the Content, Not the Form of the Message. Such things as the speaker's mode of dress, quality of voice, delivery mannerisms and physical characteristics are often used as excuses for not listening. Direct your attention to the message--what is being said--and away from the distracting elements.
Weigh Emotionally Charged Language. Emotionally charged language often stands in the way of effective listening. Filter out "red flag" words (like "liberal" and "conservative," for instance) and the emotions they call up. Specific suggestions for dealing with emotionally charged words include
- Take time to identify those words that affect you emotionally.
- Attempt to analyze why the words affect you the way they do.
- Work at trying to reduce the impact of these words on you.
Eliminate Distractions. Physical distractions and complications seriously impair listening. These distractions may take many forms: loud noises, stuffy rooms, overcrowded conditions, uncomfortable temperature, bad lighting, etc. Good listeners speak up if the room is too warm, too noisy, or too dark. There are also internal distractions: worries about deadlines or problems of any type may make listening difficult. If you're distracted, make an effort to clear your head. If you can't manage it, arrange to communicate at some other time.
Think Efficiently and Critically. On the average, we speak at a rate of 100 to 200 words per minute. However, we think at a much faster rate, anywhere from 400 to 600 words per minute. What do we do with this excess thinking time while listening to someone speak? One technique is to apply this spare time to analyzing what is being said. They critically review the material by asking the following kinds of questions:
* What is being said to support the speaker's point of view? (Evidence)
* What assumptions are being made by the speaker and the listener? (Assumptions)
* How does this information affect me? (Effect)
* Can this material be organized more efficiently? (Structure)
* Are there examples that would better illustrate what is being said? (Example)
* What are the main points of the message? (Summary)
Sending Messages
Selecting the Best Communication Method
In communicating with decision makers, use the most appropriate communications method. One way to do this is to ask yourself the following questions.
* What is the purpose of your message? Do you plan to tell them something new? Inform?
Do you plan to change their view? Persuade?
* What facts must be presented to achieve your desired effect?
* What action, if any, do you expect decision makers to take?
* What general ideas, opinions and conclusions must be stressed?
* Are you thoroughly familiar with all the important information on the innovation?
* What resources and constraints affect adoption of the innovation? How much time is available? How much money is available
* Which method, or combination of methods, will work most effectively for this situation? Personal contact--requires scheduling, time and interpersonal skills.
Telephone contact--requires good verbal skills and an awareness of voice tones as nonverbal communication.
Letter--requires writing skills.
e-mail?informal, needs to be short and to the point, but not get lost in clutter. May
require frequent follow-up.
News release--requires writing skills and cooperation of the media and time.
ORAL COMMUNICATION
Speaking to Communicate
Spoken communication occurs in many different settings during the course of successful innovation and change. These may be divided into three main types:
* The formal and informal networks in which peers exchange information, such as professional associations, work units, work teams, etc.
* The activities of change agents, opinion leaders, etc.
* The contacts established at team meetings, conferences, training courses, etc.
Whether to use oral communication is a decision we all make frequently in the course of a workday. The change agent must be able to identify those situations in which oral communication is the most appropriate one to use. Don Kirkpatrick suggests the -following guidelines for making such decisions.
Use Oral Communication When:
* The receiver is not particularly interested in receiving the message. Oral communication provides more opportunity for getting and keeping interest and attention.
* It is important to get feedback. It's easier to get feedback by observing facial expressions (and other nonverbal behavior) and asking questions.
* Emotions are high. Oral communication provides more opportunity for both the sender and the receiver to let off steam, cool down, and create a suitable climate for understanding.
* The receiver is too busy or preoccupied to read. Oral communication provides more opportunity to get attention.
* The sender wants to persuade or convince. Oral communication provides more flexibility, opportunity for emphasis, chance to listen, and opportunity to remove resistance and change attitudes.
* When discussion is needed. A complicated subject frequently requires discussion to be sure of understanding.
* When criticism of the receiver is involved. Oral communication provides more opportunity to accomplish this without arousing resentment. Also, oral communication is less threatening because it isn't formalized in writing.
* When the receiver prefers one-to-one contact.
Messages should be clear and accurate, and sent in a way that encourages retention, not rejection.
* Use Verbal Feedback Even If Nonverbal Is Positive And Frequent. Everyone needs reassurance that they are reading nonverbal communication correctly, whether a smile means "You're doing great," "You're doing better than most beginners," or "You'll catch on eventually."
* Focus Feedback On Behavior Rather Than On Personality. It's better to comment on specific behavior than to characterize a pattern of behavior. For example, instead of calling a colleague inefficient, specify your complaint: "You don't return phone calls; this causes problems both in and outside your office."
* Focus Feedback On Description Rather Than Judgment. Description tells what happened.
Judgment evaluates what happened. For example, in evaluating a report don't say, "This is a lousy report!!" Instead, try: "The report doesn't focus on the information that I think needs emphasis," or "This report seems to have a lot of grammatical and spelling mistakes."
* Make Feedback Specific Rather Than General. If feedback is specific, the receiver knows what activity to continue or change. When feedback is general, the receiver doesn't know what to do differently. For example, in an office situation, instead of saying "These folders are not arranged correctly," it's better feedback to say, "These should be arranged chronologically instead of alphabetically."
* In Giving Feedback, Consider the Needs and Abilities of the Receiver. Give the amount of information the receiver can use and focus feedback on activities the receiver has control over. It's fruitless to criticize the level of activity, if the decision to grant the necessary monies for materials, personnel or technology is made at a different level.
* Check to See if the Receiver Heard What You Meant to Say. If the information is important enough to send, make sure the person understands it. One way of doing this is to say, "I'm wondering if I said that clearly enough. What did you understand me to say?" or "This is what I hear you saying. Is that right?"
Presentation Styles
There are different styles of making a presentation and different people will use the approach that suits them.
Good Old Boy: This is usually an experienced person who is the peer of most of the audience. Generally, there is a lot of good information but it may be poorly organized or poorly delivered.
The Entertainer: This person relies on jokes and stories to get their point across. Good visual aids could be an important feature of the presentation. Sometimes there is too much emphasis on satisfying the audience that little information is actually transferred.
The Academic: This person tends to be very precise and deliberate in presenting information. There is considerable content and it usually is well organized. Unfortunately. it can also be boring and irrelevant and not relate well to the audience.
The Reader: This person decides to read his material word for word. The material is often not especially prepared for an oral presentation and can be overly technical, boring and hard to understand. All topics are covered and what is said is precise and accurate.
The Snail: This person is nervous about the presentation and goes into a shell. Like a snail, this person also moves slowly and the presentation seems to last forever. What is best? You have to have a style you are comfortable with. Ideally, you have the rapport of the good old boy, the organization and content of the academic, the ability to get and maintain interest of the entertainer, and the precision of the reader. If you do this you will avoid the slow pace of the snail and effectively present information to your listeners. The Gadgeteer: This person uses every gimmick and technique in his or her presentation and visual aids. It can be overdone with the message getting lost among the bells and whistles.
Components of an Effective Oral Report
Introduction Capture the attention of the group right from the start.
* Give the necessary explanation of the background from which the problem derived.
* Clearly state and explain the problem.
* Clearly state your objectives.
* Indicate the method(s) used to solve the problem.
* Suggest the order in which you will provide information.
Organization
* Provide sufficient introductory information.
* Use transitions from one main part to the next and between points of the speech.
* Use summary statements and restatements.
* Make the main ideas of the report clearly distinguishable from one another.
Content
* Have adequate supporting data to substantiate what you say.
* Avoid using extraneous material.
* Present supporting data clearly--in terms of the ideas or concepts you are trying to communicate.
* Were the methods of the investigation clearly presented?
* Visual Aid Supports
* Use clear drawings, charts, diagrams or other aids to make explanations vivid and understandable.
* Make visual aids fit naturally into the presentation.
* Be completely familiar with each visual used.
* Don't clutter your report with too many visual aids.
Conclusion
Conclude your report with finality in terms of one or more of the following:
* the conclusions reached
* the problem solved
* the results obtained
* the value of such findings to the county
* recommendations offered
Question Period
* Give evidence of intelligent listening in interpreting the questions.
* Organize answers in terms of a summary statement, explanation, and supporting example.
* Show flexibility in adapting or improvising visual aids in answering questions.
Delivery
* Be natural, "communicative" in your delivery.
* Use frequent eye contact to maintain rapport with the audience.
* Vary your delivery with appropriate movements and gestures.
* Speak distinctly.
* Display confidence and authority.
* Express enthusiasm for your ideas.