1972-79: Bilateralism and Nonalignment
The independent approach to world affairs initiated in the mid-1960s shaped up into a policy of bilateralism and nonalignment during this phase. The mutuality of interests rather than permanent alignment was the main criterion for cultivating relations with the U.S., the Soviet Union and China. It was not a policy of equidistance from these states but emphasised mutuality of interests at the bilateral level without alienating one for the sake of the other. Pakistan withdrew from the Commonwealth and the SEATO in January and November 1972 respectively. It may be pointed out here that Pakistan returned to the Commonwealth in September 1989. Pakistan recognized the Democratic Republic of Korea (North Korea),Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and East Germany in November 1972.Pakistan diversified interaction by giving more attention to developing economic, trade and diplomatic relations with the states of Eastern Europe, especially Yugoslavia and Rumania. Similar interaction was cultivated with several states in Asia, Africa and South and Central America, hitherto neglected by Pakistan's policy makers. An important offshoot of independent and non-aligned foreign policy was Pakistan's greater identification with the causes and issues of the developing countries. It advocated the restructuring of the international economic order to make it more responsive to the needs and aspirations of the developing world. Pakistan attended the Non-aligned Summit as an observer in 1976 and formally became its member in September 1979. Earlier in March 1979, Pakistan withdrew from the CENTO.
Pak-India Relations: towards improvement
The most perplexing problem faced by Pakistan during this period related to the issues and problems arising out of the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, resulting in the break up of East Pakistan and its establishment as an independent state. India and Pakistan signed a peace agreement at Simla on July 2, 1972 for dealing with the 1971 war related issues which included return of Pakistani Prisoner of War in Indian custody, Bangladesh’s threat to put 195 Pakistani POWs on war trials, withdrawal of Indian Pakistani troops on the West Pakistan-India border, recognition of Bangladesh by Pakistan, and normalization of Indo-Pakistan relations. These issues were tackled during 1972-76. Pakistan recognized Bangladesh in February 1974 on the eve of the 2nd Islamic Summit Conference held at Lahore. Bangladesh reciprocated by withdrawing its demand for war trials of 195 Pakistani POWs. These developments produced a noticeable improvement in Pakistan-India relations. However they continued to view each other as major adversary. Pakistan was perturbed by India's policy of not relenting on military build-up and especially the detonation of a nuclear device in May 1974.
Strengthening of Ties with Major Powers
Pakistan's relations with the major powers continued to be based on bilateralism and mutuality of interests. The friendly ties that developed between Pakistan and China in the 60s were strengthened curing this period. The top civil and military leaders visited each other quite frequently for consultation on bilateral relations and international and regional affairs. These meetings produced unanimity of views on most matters and China reiterated its support to Pakistan's independence and territorial integrity. A secure and independent Pakistan was the main feature of China's South Asia policy. Their interaction in cultural, scientific and technological fields also expanded and China made a significant contribution to Pakistan's economic and industrial (including defense industry) development. It was the main source of weapon procurement for Pakistan. Pakistan succeeded in defusing antagonism that marked its relations with the Soviet Union against the backdrop of the Bangladesh crisis. The visits of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto to Moscow in 1972 and 1974 helped the two sides to understand each other's points-of-view on regional affairs, and they developed functional interaction, free from over tension. Their bilateral trade and economic cooperation expanded during these years.
Pakistan's relations with China expanded rapidly. There were frequent high level exchanges between the two countries, including the visits of the heads of government and the top level officials of the ministries of foreign affairs and defense. China extended financial and technological assistance for setting up defense and civilian industry. Pakistan's relations with the U.S ranged from cordiality in the beginning to sharp differences on Pakistan's nuclear programme towards the end of this phase. The U.S. reaffirmed support to Pakistan's independence and territorial integrity, and Z.A. Bhutto visited the U.S. in September 1973 and February 1975 which contributed to reinforcing their bilateral relations. The U.S. withdrew the arms embargo in stages: sale of non-lethal equipment and spare parts in 1973; and cash sale of weapons on case by case basis in 1975 - a decision welcomed by Pakistan.
Nuclear Technology and Relations with the U.S.
Sharp difference arose between Pakistan and the U.S. when, in 1976, Pakistan entered into an agreement with France to acquire a nuclear reprocessing plant. Viewing this as a move on Pakistan's part to acquire nuclear weapons capability, the U.S. worked towards blocking the deal and took several steps to make its displeasure on Pakistan's nuclear policy known to Pakistan: withdrawal of A-7 aircraft offer (1977), suspension of new economic assistance and military sales (1977-78), exclusion of Pakistan from President Carter's trip to Asia when he visited, inter alia, Iran and India (December 1977-January 1978). In 1978, the U.S. succeeded in convincing France to withdraw from the agreement for supplying a nuclear reprocessing plant to Pakistan. When the U.S. discovered that Pakistan was secretly working on setting up uranium enrichment facility at Kahuta, it suspended all economic assistance and military sales to Pakistan in April 1979. On top of this was the burning down of the U.S. embassy in Islamabad in November 1979 by a mob, consisting mainly of the students, which pushed Pakistan-U.S. relations to the lowest-ever point.
Pakistan and the Muslim World
Pakistan's relations with the Muslim states, particularly the states of the Middle East, touched new heights of cordiality and trust. These relations served Pakistan's diplomatic, economic and security needs in the post-1971 period. The states of the Middle East, especially the states of the Gulf region, extended economic assistance (investment, grants, and loans on soft terms) and diplomatic support to Pakistan. They accommodated Pakistani human-power, which brought a financial bonanza for Pakistan.

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