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Default Sentence Structure

chapter # 1

Sentence Agreement



Introduction


Here you learn how to match subjects and verbs, pronouns and antecedents, and maybe even a few outfits. You find out how agreement works with collective nouns and indefinite pronouns, too. Agreement is a biggie, because it occurs at least once a sentence. Thoug i was able to append this section with Structure & expression writing but it will puzzle both distinguished materials.


Singular Subjects and Verbs

The following guidelines make it easy to match singular subjects and verbs.

1. A singular subject takes a singular verb. For example:

" He who hesitates is probably right ".
The singular subject he agrees with the singular verb is.

"Isaac Asimov was the only author to have a book in every Dewey Decimal System category".
The singular subject Isaac Asimov requires the singular verb was.

2. Plural subjects that function as a single unit take a singular verb. For instance:

"Spaghetti and meatballs is my favorite dish".
The singular subject spaghetti and meatballs agrees with the singular verb is.

"Ham and eggs was the breakfast of champions in the 1950s".
The singular subject ham and eggs agrees with the singular verb was.

3. Titles are always singular. It doesn't matter how long the title is, what it names, or whether or not it sounds plural. As a result, a title always takes a singular verb. Here are two examples:

'Moby Dick was a whale of a tale".
The singular title Moby Dick agrees with the singular verb was.

"The Valachi Papers is a good read".

The singular title The Valachi Papers agrees with the singular verb is—even though the title appears plural, it is singular. That's because all titles are singular.

4. Singular subjects connected by either/or, neither/nor, and not only/but also require a singular verb. That's because the connecting words show that you are choosing only one item.

"Either the witness or the defendant was lying".
Only one person is lying: the witness or the defendant. Therefore, the subject is singular. And the singular subject (the witness or the defendant) matches the singular verb (was).







Plural Subjects and Verbs


Matching plural subjects and verbs is a snap with these simple guidelines: Here's the #1 rule:

1. A plural subject takes a plural verb.

"The rejected New Mexico state motto: Lizards make excellent pets".
The plural subject lizards matches the plural verb make.

"Mosquitoes are attracted to blue more than any other color".
The plural subject mosquitoes matches the plural verb are.

Think of the conjunction and as a plus sign. Whether the parts of the subject joined by and are singular or plural (or both), they all add up to a plural subject and so require a plural verb.

"Anwar and Hosni are going to the movies".
The plural subject Anwar and Hosni agrees with the plural verb are.

"Teddy Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln were great presidents".
The plural subject Teddy Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln agrees with the plural verb were.

2. If the subject is made up of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by or, nor, not only, or but also, the verb agrees with the noun closest to the pronoun.

"Neither the contract nor the page proofs are arriving in time to meet the deadline".
The plural subject proofs agrees with the plural verb are.

"Neither the page proofs nor the contract is arriving in time to meet the deadline".
The singular subject contract agrees with the singular verb is.

3. Ignore words or phrases that come between the subject and the verb. A phrase or clause that comes between a subject and its verb does not affect subject-verb agreement.

"The purpose of working out for several hours is to get fit and buff".
The singular subject purpose matches the singular verb is. Ignore the intervening prepositional phrase “of working out for several hours.”

"Downward mobility—a quick ride down the social and economic ladders—poses a serious problem".
The singular subject downward mobility agrees with the singular verb poses. Ignore the intervening appositive “a quick ride down the social and economic ladders.”




Collective Nouns


Collective nouns are singular in form but plural in sense. Here are some examples of collective nouns:


assembly
committee
faculty
herd
audience
crew
family
jury
class
crowd
flock
team
Army
etc.................

For purposes of agreement, collective nouns can be singular or plural, depending on how they are used in a sentence. Collective nouns used as one unit take a singular verb; collective nouns that indicate many units take a plural verb.

Singular collective nouns

Singular collective nouns include molasses (one kind of syrup) and chicken pox (one kind of disease). Other examples include measles, civics, social studies, mumps, news, cast, social studies, economics, and mathematics.

"The play's cast is rehearsing for today's show".
The singular subject cast takes the singular verb is. The members of the cast are functioning as a single unit.

"The jury returns a unanimous verdict".
The singular subject jury requires the singular verb returns; the members of the jury are working together as one unit.


Plural collective nouns

A collective noun is treated as plural when the group it names is considered to be made up of individuals. Because members of the group can act on their own, the word is considered plural.

"The play's cast are rehearsing their lines".
The plural subject cast requires the plural verb are because the members of the cast are functioning as individual people doing separate things.

"The jury often have different reactions to the evidence they hear".
The plural subject jury requires the plural verb have because the members of the jury are being considered as individuals.
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Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns, like collective nouns, can be singular or plural, depending on how they are used in a sentence. Singular indefinite pronouns take a singular verb; plural indefinite pronouns take a plural verb. Here are some guidelines to follow:

1. Indefinite pronouns that end in -one are always singular. These words include anyone, everyone, someone, and one.

2. Indefinite pronouns that end in -body are always singular. These words include anybody, somebody, nobody.

3. The indefinite pronouns both, few, many, others, and several are always plural.

4. The indefinite pronouns all, any, more, most, none, and some can be singular or plural, depending on how they are used.

Indefinite Pronouns list

Singular ----------- Plural -------------Singular or Plural

another ---------------------both -------------------------all
anyone ----------------------few ------------------------ any
each ------------------------many ---------------------- more
everyone --------------------others ----------------------most
everybody ----------------- several ----------------------none
everything ---------------------------------------------- some
much
nobody
nothing
other
someone
anybody
anything
either
little
neither
no one
one
somebody
something


Check out these examples:

"One of the Elvis impersonators is missing".

The singular subject one requires the singular verb is.

"Both of the Elvis impersonators are missing, thank goodness".

The plural subject both requires the plural verb are.

"All the sautéed rattlesnake was devoured".

The singular subject all requires the singular verb was.

"All the seats were occupied".

The plural subject all requires the plural verb were.



Checking Subjects and Verb Agreement

Now you know the main rules of agreement, so the rest of this business must be a piece of cake. Not so fast. Follow these three steps to check whether subjects and verbs in your sentences really agree:

1. Find the sentence's subject.
2. Figure out if the subject is singular or plural.
3. Select the appropriate verb form to match the form of the subject.

Here's where the problems occur:

1. Figuring out what is the subject.

2. Figuring out if the subject is singular or plural.

3. Selecting the appropriate verb form to match the form of the subject.

Let's look at each step in the process.

Hide and Seek

Some subjects can be harder to find than Judge Crater, Bigfoot, or Jimmy Hoffa. Foremost among these hard-to-find subjects is the subject that has the nerve to come after the verb. Inverted word order can make it difficult to find the true subject. But wherever the subject is, it still must agree in number with its verb, as these examples show.

"On the top of the hill are two Elvis impersonators".
The plural subject impersonators agrees with the plural verb are.

"There are still several agitators in the audience".
The plural subject agitators requires the plural verb are.

Another tricky agreement situation occurs with linking verbs. As with all other verbs, a linking verb always agrees with its subject. Problems crop up when the subject and the linking verb (the predicate nominative) are not the same number. For example, the subject can be plural but the linking verb can be singular. Here's an example:

"Speeding trucks are one reason for the abundance of fresh produce in our grocery stores".
The plural subject trucks agrees with the plural verb are. Don't be tricked by the singular predicate nominative reason.

"One reason for the abundance of fresh produce in our grocery stores is speeding trucks".
Here, the singular subject reason agrees with the singular verb is. Here, the plural noun trucks is the predicate nominative.


Playing the Numbers

As you learned in the beginning of this section, in grammar, number refers to the two forms of a word: singular (one) or plural (more than one). With nouns, number is relatively easy to figure out. That's because most nouns form the plural by adding -s or -es. Here are some examples.

Singular Nouns ------------------- Plural Nouns
stock report ------------------------------ stock reports
interest rate ------------------------------ interest rates
debt ---------------------------------------- debts


Matchmaker, Matchmaker, Make Me a Match

Forget everything you learned about nouns when you start dealing with verbs. That's because we add -s or -es to the third-person singular form of most verbs. This is opposite to the way we form singular nouns. For example:


--------------------- Singular Verbs ----------------- Plural Verbs

1st and 2nd Person-------- 3rd Person -----------------1st, 2nd, 3rd Person
I start --------------------he starts ---------------------we start
I do -----------------------he does --------------------- we do


The helping verbs are even nastier because they aren't regular. The following chart shows the forms of to be

Singular Be Verbs ----------------------- Plural Be Verbs

(I) am -------------------------------------------- (we) are
(he, she, it) is ------------------------------------ (they) are
(I, he, she, it) was -------------------------------- (we, they) were
(he, she, it) has been ----------------------------- (they) have been

As a result, subject-verb agreement is most tricky in the present tense







Regards,

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Pronouns and Antecedents Agreement



Like subjects and verbs, pronouns and antecedents (the words to which they refer) must agree. A pronoun replaces a noun. To make sure that your writing is clear, always use the noun before using the pronoun. Follow these rules to make sure that your pronouns and antecedents get on well .


1. A pronoun agrees (or matches) its antecedent in number, person, and gender.


Number is amount: singular or plural.

Person refers to the first person, second person, or third person (the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person spoken about).

Gender refers to masculine, feminine, or neuter references. He and him are masculine in gender, she and her are feminine, and it and its are neuter.

For example:

Sanjay gave her paycheck straight to the orthodontist.

Both the antecedent Sanjay and the pronoun her are singular, in the third person, and feminine in gender.

Errors often occur when there are incorrect shifts in person and gender.

For example:

Incorrect : Herman will screen the video teleconference, which you need to stay timely.
Correct: Herman will screen the video teleconference, which he needs to stay timely.


2. Use a singular personal pronoun with a singular indefinite pronoun.

If anyone questions the amount, refer him or her to payroll.

The singular pronouns him or her refer to the singular pronoun anyone.

Each police officer and firefighter has to watch his or her figure.

Use a singular pronoun if the nouns are preceded by each or every.




3. Use a plural pronoun when the antecedents are joined by and. This is true even if the antecedents are singular.

Toody and Muldoon maintain their svelte figures by eating bean sprouts rather than donuts.

Because the two singular antecedents Toody and Muldoon are joined by and, use the plural pronoun their.


4. Antecedents joined by or, nor, or correlative conjunctions such as either/or, neither/nor agree with the antecedent closer to the pronoun.

Neither Toody nor the other officers eat their jelly donuts on duty.

Use the plural pronoun their to agree with the plural antecedent officers.

Neither the other officers nor Toody eats his donuts on duty.

Use the singular pronoun his to agree with the singular antecedent Toody. Notice that the verb eats must also match.



5. Be sure that the pronoun refers directly to the noun. Confusion occurs when the pronoun can refer to more than one antecedent. If you end up with this mish-mash, rewrite the sentence.

Confusing: Raul saw an ad in last week's newspaper, but he can't seem to find it.
What is it that Raul can't find: the ad or the newspaper?
Correct: Raul can't find the ad he saw in last week's newspaper


6. Avoid sexist language. Traditionally, the pronouns he and his were used to refer to both men and women. Not any more. The current correct usage is he and she or she and he.

Error: An employee should turn in his timesheet every Friday.

Correct: An employee should turn in his or her timesheet every Friday.

If the pronoun pairing necessary to avoid sexist language is cumbersome (and you better believe that it will be), try these options:

Recast the sentence into third person, they or them. For example: Employees should turn in their timesheets every Friday.

Recast the sentence into the second person, you. For example: You should turn in your timesheet every Friday.

Try to eliminate the pronoun altogether. For example: Turn in timesheets every Friday.



7. Always use common sense. When the sentence doesn't seem to fit the rules and you can't figure out how to shoehorn it in, don't improvise, revise! Rewrite the sentence to avoid the problem entirely.

Confusing: The executive director along with the marketing vice president (was, were?) at odds over the new scheduling system.

Better: The executive director and the marketing vice president were at odds over the new scheduling system
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Default Chapter # 2

Sentences



Introduction

If someone asked you to define a sentence, do you think you could? You might be tempted to say, “No way!” I bet you do know a sentence when you see it. Prove me right; pick out the sentence from these four groups of words:

* Throughout people's ears grow entire their lives.
* Grow throughout people's entire ears lives their.
* Entire throughout lives ears grow people's their.
* People's ears grow throughout their entire lives


Each of the four groups contains exactly the same words, but only one is a sentence: the last one. You were able to pick out the sentence so easily because you have an innate knowledge of how English works—knowledge you have absorbed from reading, speaking, listening, and watching.


But perhaps you need a little more work on sentences. Maybe you're not sure about the different kinds of sentences and how they're used. That's what you'll learn here. First, you learn about the two main parts of the sentence: the subject and the predicate. Then I teach you the four different types of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. Next come the four different sentence functions. Along the way, you learn how to fix the two most common sentence errors: fragments and run-ons.



Subject and Predicate



Sentence: Stop!

Sentence: You stop!

Sentence: You better stop right now.




Each of these three word groups is a sentence. That's because they each meet the three requirements for a sentence. To be a sentence, a group of words must …


* Have a subject (noun or pronoun).
* Have a predicate (verb or verb phrase).
* Express a complete thought.


A sentence has two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject includes the noun or pronoun that tells what the subject is about. The predicate includes the verb that describes what the subject is doing. Here are some examples of complete sentences.



Subject--------------------------------- Predicate


You ------------------------------------------ stop!
New York City -------------------------is called the “Big Apple.”
The forward with the knee brace ---------- made 10 baskets.



Seek and Ye Shall Find

Being able to recognize the subject and the verb in a sentence will help you make sure that your own sentences are complete and clear. To check that you've included the subject and verb in your sentences, follow these steps:

1. To find the subject, ask yourself, “Self, what word is the sentence describing?”
2. To find an action verb, ask yourself, “Self, what did the subject do?”
3. If you can't find an action verb, look for a linking verb. For example: Herman is the winner. “Is” is the linking verb.


Hidden Treasures


Some sentences are not that cooperative about the placement of their subject and verb, however. In most sentences, the subject will come before the verb. Not so with questions. In a question, the verb often comes before the subject. Here are some examples:

Is the frog in the freezer?

The subject of the sentence is “frog.”

Are you traveling this weekend?

The subject of the sentence is “you.”




To find the subject in a question, rewrite the question as a statement. The question “Is the frog in the freezer?” becomes “The frog is in the freezer.” Now the subject, frog, is in the usual position before the verb.

It can be equally tricky to find the subject in sentences that start with here or there. Remember that here or there never function as the subject of a sentence. For example:

Here is your frozen frog.

The subject of the sentence is “frog.”

There goes the frog, all nicely defrosted.

The subject of the sentence is still Mr. Frog.
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Types of Sentences

In Clauses, you learned that there are two types of clauses: independent and dependent. Recall that independent clauses are complete sentences because they have a subject and verb and express a complete thought. Dependent clauses, in contrast, cannot stand alone because they do not express a complete thought—even though they have a subject and a verb. Independent and dependent clauses can be used in a number of ways to form the four basic types of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. Time to make their acquaintance.




Simple Sentences: Simple Isn't as Simple Does

A simple sentence has one independent clause. That means it has one subject and one verb—although either or both can be compound. In addition, a simple sentence can have adjectives and adverbs. What a simple sentence can't have is another independent clause or any subordinate clauses. For example:

Americans eat more bananas than they eat any other fruit.
one subject, one verb

David Letterman and Jay Leno host talk shows.
compound subject, one verb

My son toasts and butters his bagel.
one subject, compound verb



Don't shun the simple sentence—it's no simpleton. The simple sentence served Ernest Hemingway well; with its help, macho man Ernie snagged a Nobel Prize in Literature. In the following excerpt from The Sun Also Rises, Hemingway uses the simple sentence to convey powerful emotions:

The driver started up the street. I settled back. Brett moved close to me. We sat close against each other. I put my arm around her and she rested against me comfortably. It was very hot and bright, and the houses looked sharply white. We turned out onto the Gran Via.


“Oh, Ali,” Sara said, “we could have had such a damned good time together.”
Ahead was a mounted policeman in khaki directing traffic. He raised his baton. The car slowed suddenly pressing Brett against me.
“Yes,” I said. “Isn't it pretty to think so?”



Compound Sentences: Compound Interest


A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses. The independent clauses can be joined in one of two ways:

* With a coordinating conjunction: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
* With a semicolon (

As with a simple sentence, a compound sentence can't have any subordinate clauses. Here are some compound sentences for your reading pleasure.

Independent Clause ----Conjunction or Semicolon -------Independent Clause


Men are mammals -------------and ---------------- women are femammals.

Mushrooms grow in----------- so ---------------------they look like
damp places-------------------------------------------umbrellas.

The largest mammals are --------; -------------------there's nowhere else
found in the sea -------------------------------------to put them.


You might also add a conjunctive adverb to this construction, as in this example: The largest mammals are found in the sea; after all, there's nowhere else to put them.


Complex Sentences: Not So Complex at All

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. The independent clause is called the “main clause.” These sentences use subordinating conjunctions to link ideas. As you check out these examples, see if you can find the subordinating conjunctions.


* Parallel lines never meet (independent clause) until (subordinating conjunction) you bend one of them (dependent clause).

* Many dead animals of the past changed to oil (independent clause) while (subordinating conjunction) others preferred to be gas (dependent clause).

* Even though (subordinating conjunction) the sun is a star (dependent clause), it knows how to change back to the sun in the daytime (independent clause).

The subordinating conjunctions are until, while, and even though.


Compound-Complex Sentences: The Big Kahuna

A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. The dependent clause can be part of the independent clause. For instance:


* When the heat comes,----------------------the lakes dry up,

dependent clause------------------------------independent clause

* and farmers know the crops will fail.

independent clause



* I planned to drive to work,---------------------- but I couldn't

independent clause----------------------------- independent clause



Epiloque

Now that you know you have four different sentence types at your disposal, which ones should you use? Effective communication requires not only that you write complete sentences, but also that you write sentences that say exactly what you mean. Try these six guidelines as you decide which sentence types to use and when:

* Every sentence should provide clear and complete information.

* Most effective sentences are concise, conveying their meaning in as few words as possible.

* Effective sentences stress the main point or the most important detail. In most cases, the main point is located in the main clause to make it easier to find.

* Your choice of sentences depends on your audience. For example, you would use simple sentences and short words if your readers were children, while an audience of engineers would call for more technical language and longer sentences.

* Always consider your purpose for writing before you select a sentence type.

* The rhythm and pacing of your writing is determined by your sentences.


Before you shift into panic mode, you should know that most writers use a combination of all four sentence types to convey their meaning. Even Ernest Hemingway slipped a compound sentence or two in among all those simple sentences.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------

Quote:
@ Amy and Waseem

I must thank u guys for motivating my efforts .

Take care,
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Sentence Errors: Fragments and Run-ons

Why learn the different types of sentences and their functions? So you can write correct ones, bubba. When your sentences aren't correct, no one will know what the dickens you're saying. This is not a good thing.

There are two basic types of sentence errors: fragments and run-ons. These problems with sentence construction cause clumsy, unpolished writing and speech. Let's look at each of these sentence errors in detail so you'll be able to fix them with ease.



Fragments: Lost in Place

As its name suggests, a sentence fragment is a group of words that do not express a complete thought. Most times, a fragment is missing a subject, a verb, or both. Other times, a fragment may have a subject and a verb but still not express a complete thought. Fragments don't discriminate: They can be phrases as well as clauses.

There are three main ways that fragments occur. And here they are:

1. Fragments occur when a dependent clause masquerades as a sentence. For example:

"Because Lincoln Logs were invented by Frank Lloyd Wright's son".

"Because the most common name in the world is Mohammed".



2. Fragments also happen when a phrase is cut off from the sentence it describes. For instance:

"Used to cure fleas and ticks".

"Hoping to keep the ceiling from collapsing".

3. You can also create a fragment if you use the wrong form of a verb. For example:

"The writer gone to the office".

"The pearl being the main ingredient in many love potions".


You can correct a fragment two ways:

1. Add the missing part to the sentence

Fragment: In the cabinet over the bookshelf.

Complete: I keep extra supplies in the cabinet over the bookshelf.


2. Omit the subordinating conjunction or connect it to another sentence.

Fragment: When you go to the party.

Complete: When you go to the party, be sure to head straight for the shrimp and caviar and chow down.


Run-Ons and Comma Splices: It Could Be a Stretch


A run-on sentence is two incorrectly joined independent clauses. A comma splice is a run-on with a comma where the two independent clauses run together. When your sentences run together, your ideas are garbled. For instance:

* Most people who drink coffee don't know where it comes from it is actually the fruit of an evergreen tree.

* Robert Wadlow was the tallest person who ever lived he was 8 feet 11 inches tall when he died in 1940.


So far, so good, but there are two important facts to realize about run-ons:

* Run-ons are not necessarily long. Some can be quite short, in fact. For instance:

"She walked he ran".

"Birds chirp cows moo".

* The second clause of a run-on often begins with a pronoun.

"Godzilla wants to sleep he is exhausted from destroying Tokyo".


You can correct a run-on sentence in one of four ways. Let's use Godzilla as our example.

* Separate the run-on into two sentences with end punctuation such as periods, exclamation marks, and question marks.

"Godzilla wants to sleep. He is exhausted from destroying Tokyo".

* Add a coordinating conjunction (and, nor, but, or, for, yet, or so) to create a compound sentence.

"Godzilla wants to sleep, for he is exhausted from destroying Tokyo".

* Add a subordinating conjunction to create a complex sentence.

"Godzilla wants to sleep, because he is exhausted from destroying Tokyo".

* Use a semicolon to create a compound sentence.

"Godzilla wants to sleep; he is exhausted from destroying Tokyo".



Seventh-Inning Stretch


Take a few minutes to fix the fragments and run-ons in these two anecdotes.

1. In the late 1900s, the man who was shot out of the cannon every day. At the Barnum and Bailey Circus decided to quit his wife had asked him to find a less risky way of making a living P. T. Barnum hated to lose a good man. So he sent him a message, “I beg you to reconsider—men of your caliber are hard to find.”

2. In 1946, Winston Churchill traveled to Fulton, Missouri, to deliver a speech. Which turned out to be his famous Iron Curtain address. And to be present at the dedication of a bust in his honor. After his speech, a rather attractive and ample woman approached the wartime prime minister of England and said, “Mr. Churchill, I traveled more than a hundred miles this morning. For the unveiling of your bust.” Churchill, who was known far and wide for his quick wit, replied, “Madam, I assure you, in that regard I would gladly return the favor.”
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Default Chapter # 3

Sentence Usage Rules


Introduction


Once upon a time, when writing styles were more formal than they are now, some people were very careful never to end a sentence with a preposition. Even then, however, there were stylistic mavericks who let their prepositions fall with abandon. Winston Churchill was one of these people. His secretary, appalled, always revised the drafts of Churchill's speeches to avoid ending sentences with a preposition. Exasperated, Churchill finally sent this message to his secretary: “This is the sort of English up with which I will not put.”

Here you learn whether you should or shouldn't follow Churchill's lead and conclude a sentence with a preposition. You also find information on other sticky grammar issues, including dangling participles and misplaced modifiers. In addition, I bring you up to speed on the latest grammar “rulings” concerning splitting infinitives, using hopefully, and choosing between like or as.



Dangling Modifiers

What's wrong with the following sentence?

Coming up the hall, the clock struck 10.
As written, the sentence states that the clock was coming up the hall. An ambulatory clock is possible, but neither highly likely nor terribly desirable. This misunderstanding about the clock's power of locomotion occurs because the phrase “coming up the hall” has nothing to modify or describe. A phrase left twisting in the wind like this is called a dangling modifier.

Remember that a modifier is a word or phrase that gives more information about the subject, verb, or object in a clause. A modifier is said to “dangle” when the word it modifies is not actually in the sentence. “Coming up the hall” is a dangling modifier because it cannot be attached to any word in the sentence.

Dangling modifiers confuse your readers and obscure your meaning. These errors don't jump out at you like a spelling blooper or a shark attack; rather, they sneak up on you like April 15 or middle age. And they can be just as deadly.



Help Is on the Way

Because the basic problem with a dangling modifier is a lack of connection, you must provide a noun or pronoun to which the dangling construction can be attached. There are two basic ways to do this:

1. Rewrite the modifier as a subordinate clause.
Dangling: Confirming our conversation, the shipment will be ordered on Monday.
(According to this sentence, the shipment—not the speaker—confirmed the conversation.)
Correct: As I stated in the memo, the shipment will be ordered on Monday.

2. Rewrite the main clause so the subject or object can be modified by the now-dangling phrase.
Dangling: Confirming our conversation, the shipment will be ordered on Monday.
Correct: Confirming our conversation, I have arranged for the shipment to be ordered on Monday.



Misplaced Modifiers

You can lose your car keys, your temper, and even your head—but please, don't misplace your modifiers. It's as tacky as a pork chop at a bar mitzvah.

A misplaced modifier is just that: a phrase, clause, or word placed too far from the noun or pronoun it describes. As a result, the sentence fails to convey your exact meaning. But misplaced modifiers usually carry a double wallop: They often create confusion or imply something unintentionally funny. This is not a good thing when you want to make a competent impression with your writing. Here's an example of a misplaced modifier:

They bought a puppy for my sister they call Fido.

As this sentence is written, it means that the sister, not the puppy, is named Fido. That's because the modifier “they call Fido” is in the wrong place in the sentence. To correct a misplaced modifier, move the modifier as close as possible to the word or phrase it is describing. Here's how the sentence should read:

They bought a puppy they call Fido for my sister.



It Says What?


Study this chart to see how a misplaced modifier can distort a writer's meaning. Then see how I moved the modifier so the sentence makes sense.

Sentence #1: The patient was referred to a psychologist with several emotional problems.

What the writer thinks it says: The patient has emotional problems.

What the sentence really says: The psychologist has emotional problems.

Correction: The patient with several emotional problems was referred to a psychologist.


Sentence #2: Sam found a letter in the mailbox that doesn't belong to her.

What the writer thinks it says: Sam found a letter that doesn't belong to her.

What the sentence really says: The mailbox doesn't belong to Sam.

Correction: Sam found a letter that doesn't belong to her in the mailbox.

Sentence #3: Two cars were reported stolen by the Farmingdale police yesterday.

What the writer thinks it says: The Farmingdale police reported two stolen cars.

What the sentence really says: The police stole the two cars.

Correction: Yesterday, the Farmingdale police reported that two cars were stolen.

Sentence #4: Please take time to look over the brochure that is enclosed with your family.

What the writer thinks it says: Look over the brochure with your family

What the sentence really says: The brochure is enclosed with your family.

Correction: Please take time to look over the enclosed brochure with your family.

Sentence #5: Luis had driven over with his wife, Chris, from their home in a Chevy for the basketball game.

What the writer thinks it says: Luis and Chris drove in their Chevy to the game.

What the sentence really says: Luis and Chris live in a Chevy.

Correction: Luis had driven over in a Chevy with his wife, Chris, from their home for the basketball game.









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Mixed Metaphors

Figures of speech use words for more than their literal meaning. There are a number of different kinds of figures of speech, including hyperbole, understatement, personification, analogies, similes, and metaphors. Today, class, our focus is on the metaphor.

A metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two unlike things. The more familiar thing helps describe the less familiar one. Unlike their first cousins, similes, metaphors do not use the words like or as to make the comparison. “My heart is a singing bird” is an example of a metaphor.

As you can tell from the preceding definition, metaphors are innocent creatures that never did harm to anyone. That being the case, how can we explain this abomination:

“I don't want to say they lost sight of the big picture, but they have marched to a different drummer,” Victor Fortuno, the general counsel of Legal Services Corporation, said of the individual lawyer's challenges. “Whether it will upset the apple cart, I don't know.”
Like the title of this section, this passage is a mixed metaphor, a combination of images that do not work well together. It's like that old joke: “Keep your eye on the ball, your ear to the ground, your nose to the grindstone, your shoulder to the wheel: Now try to work in that position.” Here are some other mixed metaphors:

* Milking the temp workers for all they were worth, the manager barked orders at them.

(The first image suggests cows; the second, dogs. That's one animal too many.)

* Unless we tighten our belts, we'll sink like a stone.

(Belts and a stone? I think not.)

* The fullback was a bulldozer, running up and down the field like an angel.

(Only Ali could float like a butterfly and sting like a bee; this football bulldozer can't move like an angel.)

* The movie weaves a story that herds characters and readers into the same camp.

(Let's not mix spiderwebs and cattle roundups.)

Like all comparisons, metaphors must contain elements that can be compared logically—even if not explicitly. The comparison must be consistent as well. Like my sister zooming to the sweaters at a department store super sale, stay focused on a single element when you create metaphors. Otherwise, you risk creating the dreaded mixed metaphor. Don't mix your drinks or your metaphors and you'll go far.

Here are two more suggestions to help you keep your metaphors straight:

1. Use only a single metaphor per paragraph.

2. Make sure the verb matches the action the subject of the metaphor might take. (For example: a bulldozer driving up the field.)




Split Infinitives


As their motto proves, the crew of the USS Enterprise split their infinitives along with their atoms. The motto should read: “To Go Boldly …” They're not alone. Remember that a split infinitive occurs when an adverb or adverbial phrase is placed between to and the verb.

People who feel strongly about their split infinitives really feel strongly about their split infinitives. A famous New Yorker cartoon shows Captain Bligh sailing away from the Bounty in a rowboat and shouting, “So Mr. Christian! You propose to unceremoniously cast me adrift?” The caption beneath the cartoon reads: “The crew can no longer tolerate Captain Bligh's ruthless splitting of infinitives.”

Even though some people get their pencils bent out of shape over this matter, there is no authoritative grammar and usage text that expressly forbids it. Famous writers have been splitting their infinitives with abandon for centuries. George Bernard Shaw, the brilliant Irish playwright, once sent this letter to the Times of London: “There is a busybody on your staff who devotes a lot of time to chasing split infinitives: I call for the immediate dismissal of this pedant. It is of no consequence whether he decides to go quickly or to quickly go or quickly to go. The important thing is that he should go at once.”


What should you do? While I do not advocate that you go around town splitting infinitives with abandon, there's no point in mangling a sentence just to avoid a split infinitive. Good writers occasionally split infinitives to create emphasis, achieve a natural word order, and avoid confusion. If splitting an infinitive makes it possible for you to achieve the precise shade of meaning you desire, you have my blessing to split away.
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Default Common Usage Dilemmas

The Good, the Bad, the Ugly

Fortunately for me as the grammar maven, English grammar and usage has many confusing issues. And fortunately for you, only a handful of them come up with any frequency. Let's take a look at these hot issues in the grammar news: how to use hopefully, whether to use like or as, and ending sentences with a preposition.

Hopefully

Since the eighteenth century, hopefully has been used to mean “in a hopeful manner,” as in Robert Louis Stevenson's saying, “To travel hopefully is better than to arrive.” But during the past generation, the adverb has come to mean “it is to be hoped.” Today, it is also applied to situations as well as to people, as in “His fried eel will hopefully turn out well.” In addition, rather than modifying (describing) a specific verb, as in Stevenson's example, hopefully is now used to modify an entire sentence.

Except for a few lone holdouts (and if you're one of them, please don't contact me), most people and dictionaries now accept hopefully as meaning “it is to be hoped.” So don't sweat this one.


Like/As

The like/as debate is another potential minefield. About 50 years ago, a cigarette company started a new ad campaign whose centerpiece was this jingle: “Winston tastes good like a cigarette should.” When English teachers, grammarians, and various pundits reacted with horror at the misuse of “like” for “as,” the company came back with this rejoinder: “What do you want—good grammar or good taste?” Thanks to all the free publicity Winston received, the marketing executives no doubt laughed all the way to the bank.

Here's the generally accepted like/as rule:

1. Use like or as as a preposition to join a noun, as in these examples:

* Cleans like a blizzard
* Blind as a bat

2. Do not use like as a conjunction to introduce an adverb clause, as in this

example:
Incorrect: Nobody can do it like McDonald's can.
Correct: Nobody can do it as McDonald's can.


Here's my advice: Write sentences that sound good like a sentence should. Don't create awkward-sounding sentences to conform to this (or any) rule.


Ending with a Preposition

Some prissy scholars have tried (with a great deal of success) to foist a bunch of phony Latin grammar rules into English grammar, especially concerning the issue of not ending a sentence with a preposition. To be correct, you could say, “This off me ticks.” To sound smooth, you could end with the preposition and say, “This ticks me off.”

My advice? Make your sentences sound natural and graceful. If a few sentences end with a preposition, you'll be just fine. I give you permission to write “This ticks me off” rather than “This off me ticks.”
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Default Chapter # 4

Phrases



Introduction


Here, we start the construction of your writing with the phrase, one of the key building blocks of the sentence. There are several different kinds of phrases, including prepositional phrases (with the subcategories adjectival phrases and adverbial phrases), appositives, and verbals. In this section, you learn them all. First, I teach you the individual parts of each different phrase and then ease you into the phrases themselves.


A phrase is a group of words that functions in a sentence as a single part of speech. A phrase does not have a subject or a verb. As you write, you use phrases to …


Add detail by describing.
Make your meaning more precise.
Fold in additional information.

The following table shows the different types of phrases.


Different Types of Phrases


Type of Phrase ------------ Definition ---------------- Example

Prepositional ---------------Begins with a preposition------ … by the lake
----------------------and ends with a noun or a pronoun

Adjectival -----------Prepositional phrase that funtions------She has a fish
----------------------------as an adjective ---------------with red gills


Adverbial ------------Prepositional phrase that functions-----We cheered
------------------------------as an adverb---------------with loud voices.


Appositive -------------Noun or pronoun that renames------Lou, a Viking,
------------------------- another noun or pronoun--------enjoys plunder.


Verbal -----------------A verb form used as another ----(See the following
----------------------------part of speech--------------- three entries.)


Participle ---------------Verbal phrase that functions----Eating slowly, the
----------------------------as an adjective -------child was finally quiet.

Gerund ---------------Verbal phrase that functions---- Partying hearty
------------------------------as a noun ---------requires great endurance.


Infinitive ------------ Verbal phrase that functions---- To sleep late on
-------------------as a noun, adjective, or adverb-- Sunday is a real treat.
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