Make a precise of the following passage in about one third of its length and suggest a suitable heading.
It was not from want of perceiving the beauty of external nature but from the different way of perceiving it, that the early Greeks did not turn their genius to portray, either in colour or in poetry, the outlines, the hues, and contrasts of all fair valley, and hold cliffs, and golden moons, and rosy lawns which their beautiful country affords in lavish abundance.
Primitive people never so far as I know, enjoy when is called the picturesque in nature, wild forests, beetling cliffs, reaches of Alpine snow are with them great hindrances to human intercourse, and difficulties in the way of agriculture. They are furthermore the homes of the enemies of mankind, of the eagle, the wolf, or the tiger, and are most dangerous in times of earthquake or tempest. Hence the grand and striking features of nature are at first looked upon with fear and dislike.
I do not suppose that Greeks different in the respect from other people, except that the frequent occurrence of mountains and forests made agriculture peculiarly difficult and intercourse scanty, thus increasing their dislike for the apparently reckless waste in nature. We have even in Homer a similar feeling as regards the sea, --- the sea that proved the source of all their wealth and the condition of most of their greatness. Before they had learned all this, they called it “the unvintagable sea” and looked upon its shore as merely so much waste land. We can, therefore, easily understand, how in the first beginning of Greek art, the representation of wild landscape would find no place, whereas, fruitful fields did not suggest themselves as more than the ordinary background. Art in those days was struggling with material nature to which it felt a certain antagonism.
There was nothing in the social circumstances of the Greeks to produce any revolution in this attitude during their greatest days. The Greek republics were small towns where the pressure of the city life was not felt. But as soon as the days of the Greeks republics were over, the men began to congregate for imperial purposes into Antioch, or Alexandria, or lastly into Rome, than we seek the effect of noise and dust and smoke and turmoil breaking out into the natural longing for rural rest and retirement so that from Alexander’s day …… We find all kinds of authors --- epic poets, lyricist, novelists and preachers --- agreeing in the precise of nature, its rich colours, and its varied sounds.
Precis:
Despite having plenty of scenic beauty in their country, the Greeks not only depreciate it but also choose to ignore it. Greek art was deprived of natural beauty. The ancient Greeks were afraid of nature's benevolence and wrath. They consider the uncultivated wild an obstacle to their movement. Natural predators and calamities were considered to be their enemies. Untouched wild was regarded as waste because it could not be used productively at the time. Similarly, before they learned their mastery over the sea, they considered it useless. The Greeks, when they lived in city-states, failed to produce any kind of change regarding their perception of nature. After the city-states transformed into the Roman Empire, the prevalence of urban life brought out the yearning for rural and natural life in its inhabitants, which was then exhibited through art.

Title: Greek Art: Truancy of Natural Landscape

Make a precis of the given passage, also give a suitable heading.
“The official name of our species is Homo sapiens; but there are many anthropologists who prefer to think of man as homo Faber–the smith, the maker of tools it would be possible. I think, to reconcile these two definitions in a third. If man is a knower and an efficient doer, it is only because he is also a talker. In order to be Faber and Sapiens, Homo must first be loquax, the loquacious one. Without language we should merely be hairless chimpanzees. Indeed, we should be something much worse. Possessed of a high IQ but no language, we should be like the Yahoos of Gulliver's Travels – Creatures too clever to be guided by instinct, too Self-centered to live in a state of animal grace, and therefore condemned forever, frustrated and malignant, between contented ape hood and aspiring ‘humanity. It was language that made possible the accumulation of knowledge and the broadcasting of information. It was language that permitted the expression of religious insight, the formulation of ethical ideals, the codification to laws. It was language, in a word, that turned us into human beings and gave birth to civilization.

Precis:
Besides having intellect and skill, it is loquacity that differentiates humans from other species. In fact, without language, humans would be considered lower than other beasts. Language is the essence of the human species. Language helped in the transmission and formulation of wisdom, religion, ethics, and legal rules. It would not be far-fetched to say that language helped transform humans into civilised beings.

Title: Loquax: Essence of Homo sapiens

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If then a practical end must be assigned to a University course, I say it is that of training good members of a society. It is the art of social life, and its end is fitness for the world. It neither confines its views to particular professions on the one hand, not creates heroes nor inspires genius on the other. Works indeed of genius fall under no art; heroic minds come under no rule; a University is not a birthplace of poets or of immortal authors, of founders of schools, leaders of colonies, or conquerors of nations. It does not promise a generation of Aristotle or Newtons of Napoleons or Washingtons of Raphaels or Shakespeares though such miracles of nature it has before now contained within its precincts. Nor is it content on the other hand with forming the critic or the experimentalist, the economist or the engineer, through such too it includes within its scope. But a University training is the great ordinary means to a great ordinary end; it aims at raising the intellectual tone of society, at cultivating the public mind, at purifying the national taste, at supplying true principles to popular aspirations. It is the education which gives a man a clear conscious view of his own opinions and judgments, a truth in developing them, an eloquence in expressing them, and a force in urging them, it teaches him to see things as they are, to go right to the point, to disentangle a skein of thought, to detect what is sophistical and to discard what is irrelevant. It prepares him to fill any post with credit, and to master any subject with facility.

Precis:
A university's applications include nurturing and developing fine qualities in individuals. Promoting and polishing characteristics that are required for the future of the world is the main objective of any varsity. A university neither confines itself to limited professions nor guarantees the creation of a class of geniuses. It only promises lucid understanding of concepts and ideas, which helps its attendees make pragmatic judgements about any problem at hand. The polished faculty of any individual helps him to specialise in any discipline and to make relevant practical decisions about life.

Title: Utility of University

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We're dealing with a very dramatic and very fundamental paradigm shift here. You may try to lubricate your social interactions with personality techniques and skills, but in the process, you may truncate the vital character base. You can't have the fruits without the roots. It's the principle of sequencing: Private victory precedes Public Victory. Self-mastery and self-discipline are the foundation of good relationship with others. Some people say that you have to like yourself before you can like others. I think that idea has merit but if you don't know yourself, if you don't control yourself, if you don't have mastery over yourself, it's very hard to like yourself, except in some short-term, psych-up, superficial way. Real self-respect comes from dominion over self from true independence. Independence is an achievement. Inter dependence is a choice only independent people can make. Unless we are willing to achieve real independence, it's foolish to try to develop human relations skills. We might try. We might even have some degree of success when the sun is shining. But when the difficult times come - and they will - we won't have the foundation to keep things together. The most important ingredient we put into any relationship is not what we say or what we do, but what we are. And if our words and our actions come from superficial human relations techniques (the Personality Ethic) rather than from our own inner core (the character Ethic), others will sense that duplicity. We simply won't be able to create and sustain the foundation necessary for effective interdependence. The techniques and skills that really make a difference in human interaction are the ones that almost naturally flow from a truly independent character. So the place to begin building any relationship is inside ourselves, inside our circle of influence, our own character. As we become independent - Proactive, centered in correct principles, value driven and able to organize and execute around the priorities in our life with integrity - we then can choose to become interdependent - capable of building rich, enduring, highly productive relationships with other people.

Precis:
Self-development is a prerequisite for any social relationship. A person cannot solidify any relationship without first knowing himself. Through self-realization, a person can look into himself and examine his strengths and weaknesses thoroughly. A person can master his interactions with others after he can fully control his shortcomings. Social skills can only be developed through freedom from and mastery over one's inner self. If skills are underdeveloped, then others can judge their artificiality. As a result, efficient interdependence will no longer be sustainable. Only a true, uninhibited personality can develop the talent required for socialization. Freedom comes from within oneself, which helps in developing some of the integral qualities in a person that maintain their relationship with others outside of oneself.

Title: Self-realization: prerequisite of social interactions

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Basically, psychoses and neuroses represent man’s inability to maintain a balanced or equated polarity in conducting his life. The ego becomes exclusively or decidedly one sided. In psychoses there is a complete collapse of the ego back into the inner recesses of the personal and collective unconsciousness. When he is repressed toward fulfilling some life goal and where he is further unable to sublimate himself toward another goal, man regresses into goal structures not actually acceptable to himself or to the society. Strong emotional sickness of the psychotic type is like having the shadow run wild. The entire psyche regresses to archaic, animal forms of behaviors. In less severe forms of emotional sickness there may be an accentuated and overpowering use of one of the four mental functions at the expense of the other three. Either thinking, feeling, intuiting or seeing may assume such a superior role as to render the other three inoperative. The persona may become so dominant as to create a totally one-sided ego, as in some forms of neurotic behavior. All in all, whatever the type of severity of the emotional disorder, it can be taken as a failure of the psyche to maintain a proper balance between the polarities of life. Essentially, psychoses and neuroses are an alienation of the self from its true goal of self-actualization. In this sense the culture is of no consequence. Emotional disorder is not a question of being out of tune with one’s culture so much as it is of being out of tune with one’s self. Consequently, neurosis is more than bizarre behavior, especially as it may be interpreted by contemporaries in the culture. This interpretation avoids the sociological question of what is a mental disorder, since form of behavior which is acceptable in one culture may be considered neurotic in other culture. To Jung, the deviation from cultural norms is not the point. The inability to balance out personal polarities is.
Precis:
The failure of psyche to maintain the balance of nerves relates to the conditions of psychosis and neurosis. In psychosis, a man becomes insensate due to hopelessness caused by the non-realization of the objectives of life. Neurosis, on the other hand, is defined as extreme erratic behavior. This zany behaviour is interpreted and treated differently by each culture. According to Jung, these disorders are not the result of a lack of adhering to cultural norms but are due to an imbalance of personal faculties. The overuse of some cognitive functions at the expense of others causes these mental disorders. These illnesses are the result of being disconnected from one's true self.

Title: Theories on Mental Disorders

Make a précis of the given passage and suggest a suitable heading:
It was not so in Greece, where philosophers professed less, and undertook more. Parmenides pondered nebulously over the mystery of knowledge; but the pre-Socratics kept their eyes with fair consistency upon the firm earth, and sought to ferret out its secrets by observation and experience, rather than to create it by exuding dialectic; there were not many introverts among the Greeks. Picture Democritus, the Laughing Philosopher; would he not be perilous company for the dessicated scholastics who have made the disputes about the reality of the external world take the place of medieval discourses on the number of angles that could sit on the point of a pin? Picture Thales, who met the challenge that philosophers were numskulls by “cornering the market” and making a fortune in a year. Picture Anaxagoras, who did the work of Darwin for the Greeks and turned Pericles form a wire-pulling politician into a thinker and a statesman, Picture old Socrates, unafraid of the sun or the stars, gaily corrupting young men and overturning governments; what would he have done to these bespectacled seedless philosophasters who now litter the court of the once great Queen? To Plato, as to these virile predecessors, epistemology was but the vestibule of philosophy, akin to the preliminaries of love; it was pleasant enough for a while, but it was far from the creative consummation that drew wisdom’s lover on. Here and there in the shorter dialogues, the Master dallied amorously with the problems of perception, thought, and knowledge; but in his more spacious moments he spread his vision over larger fields, built himself ideal states and brooded over the nature and destiny of man. And finally in Aristotle philosophy was honoured in all her boundless scope and majesty; all her mansions were explored and made beautiful with order; here every problem found a place and every science brought its toll to wisdom. These men knew that the function of philosophy was not to bury herself in the obscure retreats of epistemology, but to come forth bravely into every realm of inquiry, and gather up all knowledge for the coordination and illumination of human character and human life.
Precis:
Greek’s Philosophers did more work than preaching. The group of philosophers before Socrates was more interested in the mystery of the events of the earth. Democritus was interested in the practical problems of geometry, and Thales was successful in making wealth by challenging the stereotypes attached to the philosophers. Socrates was famous for questioning and corrupting the minds of the young. For Plato, philosophy and love share similar characteristics because both feel pleasant initially, but after some time the struggle starts as problems arise and possible solutions are presented. Lastly, Aristotle’s philosophy was all-encompassing because it was full of wisdom. These philosophers knew that the objective of philosophy was to enlighten the character and life of a person.

Title: Practicality of Ancient Greek Philosophy

Make a précis of the given passage and suggest a suitable heading.
The author of a work of imagination is trying to affect us wholly, as human beings, whether he knows it or not; and we are affected by it, as human beings, whether we intend to be or not. I suppose that everything we eat has some effect upon us than merely the pleasure of taste and mastication; it affects us during the process of assimilation and digestion; and I believe that exactly the same is true of anything we read. The fact that what we read does not concern merely something called our literary taste, but that it affects directly, though only amongst many other influences , the whole of what we are, is best elicited , I think, by a conscientious examination of the history of our individual literary education. Consider the adolescent reading of any person with some literary sensibility. Everyone, I believe, who is at all sensible to the seductions of poetry, can remember some moment in youth when he or she was completely carried away by the work of one poet. Very likely he was carried away by several poets, one after the other. The reason for this passing infatuation is not merely that our sensibility to poetry is keener in adolescence than in maturity. What happens is a kind of inundation, or invasion of the undeveloped personality, the empty (swept and garnished) room, by the stronger personality of the poet. The same thing may happen at a later age to persons who have not done much reading. One author takes complete possession of us for a time; then another, and finally they begin to affect each other in our mind. We weigh one against another; we see that each has qualities absent from others, and qualities incompatible with the qualities of others: we begin to be, in fact, critical: and it is our growing critical power which protects us from excessive possession by anyone literary personality. The good critic and we should all try to critics, and not leave criticism to the fellows who write reviews in the papers is the man who, to a keen and abiding sensibility, joins wide and increasingly discriminating. Wide reading is not valuable as a kind of hoarding, and the accumulation of knowledge or what sometimes is meant by the term ‘a well-stocked mind.’ It is valuable because in the process of being affected by one powerful personality after another, we cease to be dominated by anyone, or by any small number. The very different views of life, cohabiting in our minds, affect each other, and our own personality asserts itself and gives each a place in some arrangement peculiar to our self.
Precis:
Human beings are swayed by anything they read. The work of great authors affects them without their deliberate intention. Anyone with some sense of literary taste can recall the first moment when they were carried away by the great work of any literary art. This infatuation with literature does not just stop there. This swaying of art would not definitely be due to individual immaturity but rather to the bland personality of an individual, which was jolted by the power of the strong words of the author. It can happen whenever a person becomes familiar with literature, regardless of their age or stage of life. Extensive and diverse reading instils the qualities of a critic in a man. These characteristics are essential for man to protect himself from being completely dominated by the thoughts and philosophy of any one author. The diverging views supplant each other, and as a result, individual personality shapes itself.

Title: Influence of Literature on Mankind

Make a précis of the given passage and suggest a suitable heading.
Objectives pursued by, organizations should be directed to the satisfaction of demands resulting from the wants of mankind. Therefore, the determination of appropriate objectives for organized activity must be preceded by an effort to determine precisely what their wants are. Industrial organizations conduct market studies to learn what consumer goods should be produced. City Commissions make surveys to ascertain what civic projects would be of most benefit. Highway Commissions conduct traffic counts to learn what constructive programmes should be undertaken. Organizations come into being as a means for creating and exchanging utility. Their success is dependent upon the appropriateness of the series of acts contributed to the system. The majority of these acts is purposeful, that is, they are directed to the accomplishment of some objectives. These acts are physical in nature and find purposeful employment in the alteration of the physical environment. As a result utility is created, which, through the process of distribution, makes it possible for the cooperative system to endure.
Before the Industrial Revolution most cooperative activity was accomplished in small owner managed enterprises, usually with a single decision maker and simple organizational objectives. Increased technology and the growth of industrial organization made necessary the establishment of a hierarchy of objectives. This is turn, required a division of the management function until today a hierarchy of decision makers exists in most organizations.
The effective pursuit of appropriate objectives contributes directly to organizational efficiency. As used here, efficiency is a measure of the want satisfying power of the cooperative system as a whole. Thus, efficiency is the summation of utilities received from the organization divided by the utilities given to the organization, as subjectively evaluated by each contributor.
The functions of the management process are the delineation of organizational objectives and the coordination of activity towards the accomplishment of these objectives. The system of coordinated activities must be maintained so that each contributor, including the manager, gains more than he contributes.
Precis:
Organizations should perform those actions that satisfy the needs of humankind. The demands must guide the objectives of an organization. Feasibility of demand should be conducted by the market surveys. The success and endurance of any organisation are measured by the achievement of its objectives and their future utility. Organizational effectiveness is determined by their efficiency – the ability to meet the objectives. Furthermore, the advancement in technology has transformed the simple organisational structure into a hierarchical and more complex one. This division of work exists today in most modern organizations. Objectives should be coordinated and delimited within modern structures so that each worker gets more benefit than his respective input.

Title: Utility of Modern Organisations

Make a précis of the given passage and suggest a suitable heading.
From Plato to Tolstoy art has been accused of exciting our emotions and thus of disturbing the order and harmony of our moral life.” Poetical imagination, according to Plato, waters our experience of lust and anger, of desire and pain, and makes them grow when they ought to starve with drought. “Tolstoy sees in art a source of infection. “Not only in infection,” he says, “a sign of art, but the degree of infectiousness is also the sole measure of excellence in art.” But the flaw in this theory is obvious. Tolstoy suppresses a fundamental moment of art, the moment of form. The aesthetic experience – the experience of contemplation is a different state of mind from the coolness of our theoretical and the sobriety of our moral judgment. It is filled with the liveliest energies of passion, but passion itself is here transformed both in its nature and in its meaning. Wordsworth defines poetry as “emotion recollected in tranquility’. But the tranquility we feel in great poetry is not that of recollection. The emotions aroused by the poet do not belong to a remote past. They are “here” alive and immediate. We are aware of their full strength, but this strength tends in a new direction. It is rather seen than immediately felt. Our passions are no longer dark and impenetrable powers; they become, as it were, transparent. Shakespeare never gives us an aesthetic theory. He does not speculate about the nature of art. Yet in the only passage in which he speaks of the character and functions of dramatic art the whole stress is laid upon this point. “The purpose of playing,” as Hamlet explains, “both at the first and now, was and is, to hold, as, it was, the mirror up to nature; to show virtue her own feature, scorn her own image, and the very age and body of the time, his form and pressure.” But the image of the passion is not the passion itself. The poet who represents a passion does not infect us with this passion. At a Shakespeare play we are not infected with the ambition of Macbeth, with the cruelty of Richard III or with the jealously of Othello. We are not at the mercy of these emotions; we look through them; we seem to penetrate into their very nature and essence. In this respect Shakespeare’s theory of dramatic art, if he had such a theory, is in complete agreement with the conception of the fine arts of the great painters and sculptors.
Precis:
Historically, art was considered immoral and a source of corruption by many philosophers, writers, and poets. Plato thought art aroused immoral feelings. Tolstoy's view of art is that the more controversial it is, the more perfect it is. In this way, he neglected the beauty of art, which is full of passion and energy. Wordsworth also erred in taking poetry – a form of art – as just a kindler of memory because the feelings aroused by the art do not belong to the past but to the present. Shakespeare thought that art expresses emotion by presenting itself in physical form, showing both good and bad. Still, the presented image is not a true representation, and it also does not affect men. Still, his explanation is more comprehensive because it gives men a medium to observe and feel the emotions.

Title: Theories and Thoughts about Art

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Of all the characteristics of ordinary human nature envy is the most unfortunate; not only does the envious person wish to inflict misfortune and do so whenever he can with impunity, but he is also himself rendered unhappy by envy. Instead of deriving pleasure from what he has, he derives pain from what others have. If he can, he deprives others of their advantages, which to him is as desirable as it would be to secure the same advantages himself. If this passion is allowed to run riot it becomes fatal to all excellence, and even the most useful exercise of exceptional skill. Why should a medical man go to see his patients in a car when the labourer has to walk to his work? Why should the scientific investigator be allowed to spend his time in a warm room when others have to face the inclemency of the elements? Why should a man who possesses some rare talent of great importance to the world be saved from the drudgery of his own housework? To such questions envy finds no answer. Fortunately, however, there is in human nature a compensating passion, namely that of admiration. Whosoever wishes to increase human happiness must wish to increase admiration and to diminish envy. What cure is there for envy? For the saint there is the cure of selflessness, though even in the case of saints, envy of other saints is by no means impossible. But, leaving saints out of account, the only cure of envy in the case of ordinary men and women is happiness, and the difficulty is that envy is itself a terrible obstacle to happiness. But the envious man may say: “What is the good of telling me that the cure of envy is happiness? I cannot find happiness while I continue to feel envy, and you tell me that I cannot cease to be envious until I find happiness.” But real life is never so logical as this. Merely to realize the cause of one's own envious feeling is to take a long step towards curing them.
Precis:
The most hapless feeling a person can have is envy. This feeling eats him up from the inside. Instead of thriving hard for excellence, depriving others of what they have is preferable to him. This emotion would prove dangerous for all skills and excellence if it were not controlled. However, envy can be cured through admiration, selflessness, and happiness. Still, it is difficult for an envious person to admire others. As for mastering selflessness, it is difficult even for the most selfless person. Lastly, the same is true for happiness, as the absence of happiness is the reason for his exasperation. So, the ultimate cure lies in the realisation of the causes of one’s own condition.

Title: Ills and Remedies of Envy