Fertilizers are inorganic materials with high analytical value and definite composition which can supply nutrients and trace elements, usually applied to the soil to encourage the growth of crops.
Examples:
• Nitrogenous fertilizers (urea, ammonium sulfate);

• Phosphate fertilizers (single/triple super phosphate);

• Potassic fertilizers (muriate of potash); and

• Macronutrients (Ca, Mg, O, C) and micronutrients (Zn, Mn, Cu, Fe, Mo, S, etc.).

Classification of fertilizers:

1. Straight fertilizers: Straight fertilizers only supply one primary plant nutrient, namely nitrogen or phosphorus or potassium. For example: urea, ammonium sulfate, potassium sulfate, and potassium chloride.

2. Complex fertilizers: Complex fertilizers contain two to three primary plant nutrients of which two primary nutrients are in chemical combination. These fertilizers are usually produced in granular form. For example: DAP, nitro phosphate, and ammonium phosphate.

3. Mixed fertilizers: These are physical mixtures of straight fertilizers. They contain more than two primary plant nutrients. These are prepared through systematic manual mixing of ingredients.

NPK Fertilizers:
Most compound fertilizers will contain three elements essential for growth, NPK which stands for Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K).

These elements help plants grow in different ways. An understanding of this will help you when choosing the correct fertilizer for a plant or for a stage in the development of a plant.
When you buy a packaged commercial fertilizer you will see an analysis of the NPK content.
An equally balanced fertilizer may be described as 5:5:5 – 5% Nitrogen, 5% Phosphorus and 5% Potassium. You may also see Potassium described as Potash.

Nitrogen the N in NPK
Nitrogen is used by the plant to produce leafy growth and formation of stems and branches. Plants most in need of nitrogen include grasses and leafy vegetables such as cabbage and spinach. Basically, the more leaf a plant produces, the higher its nitrogen requirement.

Phosphorus the P in NPK
Phosphorus is essential for seed germination and root development. It is needed particularly by young plants forming their root systems and by fruit and seed crops. Root vegetables such as carrots, swedes and turnips obviously need plentiful phosphorus to develop well.

Potassium the K in NPK
Potassium has the chemical symbol K from its Latin name kalium. It promotes flower and fruit production and is vital for maintaining growth and helping plants resist disease.
It’s used in the process of building starches and sugars so is needed in vegetables and fruits. Carrots, parsnips, potatoes, tomatoes and apples all need plenty of potassium to crop well.

Anemia is defined as a low number of red blood cells. In a routine blood test, anemia is reported as a low hemoglobin or hematocrit. Hemoglobin is the main protein in your red blood cells. It carries oxygen, and delivers it throughout your body. If you have anemia, your hemoglobin level will be low too. If it is low enough, your tissues or organs may not get enough oxygen. Symptoms of anemia -- like fatigue or pain -- happen because your organs aren't getting what they need to work the way they should.
Anemia is the most common blood condition in the U.S. It affects almost 6% of the population. Women, young children, and people with long-term diseases are more likely to have anemia. Important things to remember are:

• Certain forms of anemia are passed down through your genes, and infants may have it from birth.
• Women are at risk of iron-deficiency anemia because of blood loss from their periods and higher blood supply demands during pregnancy.
• Older adults have a greater risk of anemia because they are more likely to have kidney disease or other chronic medical conditions.

There are many types of anemia. All have different causes and treatments. Some forms -- like the mild anemia that happens during pregnancy -- aren’t a major concern. But some types of anemia may cbe severe, life-long or more symptomatic.

Anemia Symptoms
The signs of anemia can be so mild at first that you might not even notice them. But if your condition gets worse, so do they. Symptoms generally include:
• Dizziness, lightheadness, or feeling like you are about to pass out
• Fast or unusual heartbeat
• Headache
• Pain, including in your bones, chest, belly, and joints
• Problems with growth, for children and teens
• Shortness of breath
• Skin that’s pale or yellow
• Cold hands and feet
• Tiredness or weakness

Causes of anemia
Anemia occurs when your blood doesn't have enough red blood cells.
This can happen if:
• Your body doesn't make enough red blood cells
• Bleeding causes you to lose red blood cells more quickly than they can be replaced
• Your body destroys red blood cells

Different types of anemia have different causes. They include:
• Iron deficiency anemia. This most common type of anemia is caused by a shortage of iron in your body. Your bone marrow needs iron to make hemoglobin. Without adequate iron, your body can't produce enough hemoglobin for red blood cells.
Without iron supplementation, this type of anemia occurs in many pregnant women. It is also caused by blood loss, such as from heavy menstrual bleeding, an ulcer, cancer and regular use of some over-the-counter pain relievers, especially aspirin, which can cause inflammation of the stomach lining resulting in blood loss.
• Vitamin deficiency anemia. Besides iron, your body needs folate and vitamin B-12 to produce enough healthy red blood cells. A diet lacking in these and other key nutrients can cause decreased red blood cell production.
Also, some people who consume enough B-12 aren't able to absorb the vitamin. This can lead to vitamin deficiency anemia, also known as pernicious anemia.
• Anemia of inflammation. Certain diseases — such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, rheumatoid arthritis, kidney disease, Crohn's disease and other acute or chronic inflammatory diseases — can interfere with the production of red blood cells.
• Aplastic anemia. This rare, life-threatening anemia occurs when your body doesn't produce enough red blood cells. Causes of aplastic anemia include infections, certain medicines, autoimmune diseases and exposure to toxic chemicals.
• Anemia associated with bone marrow disease. A variety of diseases, such as leukemia and myelofibrosis, can cause anemia by affecting blood production in your bone marrow. The effects of these types of cancer and cancer-like disorders vary from mild to life-threatening.
• Hemolytic anemia. This group of anemias develops when red blood cells are destroyed faster than bone marrow can replace them. Certain blood diseases increase red blood cell destruction. You can inherit a hemolytic anemia, or you can develop it later in life.
• Sickle cell anemia. This inherited and sometimes serious condition is a hemolytic anemia. It's caused by a defective form of hemoglobin that forces red blood cells to assume an abnormal crescent (sickle) shape. These irregular blood cells die prematurely, resulting in a chronic shortage of red blood cells.

Antibiotics are medicines that help stop infections caused by bacteria. They do this by killing the bacteria or by keeping them from copying themselves or reproducing.

The word antibiotic means “against life.” Any drug that kills germs in your body is technically an antibiotic. But most people use the term when they’re talking about medicine that is meant to kill bacteria.

Before scientists first discovered antibiotics in the 1920s, many people died from minor bacterial infections, like strep throat. Surgery was riskier, too. But after antibiotics became available in the 1940s, life expectancy increased, surgeries got safer, and people could survive what used to be deadly infections.

What Antibiotics Can and Can’t Do
Most bacteria that live in your body are harmless. Some are even helpful. Still, bacteria can infect almost any organ. Fortunately, antibiotics can usually help.

These are the types of infections that can be treated with antibiotics:

• Some ear and sinus infections
• Dental infections
• Skin infections
• Meningitis (swelling of the brain and spinal cord)
• Strep throat
• Bladder and kidney infections
• Bacterial pneumonias
• Whooping cough

The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs present in all vertebrates. They remove waste products from the body, maintain balanced electrolyte levels, and regulate blood pressure.
The kidneys are some of the most important organs. The Ancient Egyptians left only the brain and kidneys in position before embalming a body, inferring that the held a higher value.
In this article, we will look at the structure and function of the kidneys, diseases that affect them, and how to keep the kidneys healthy.
Structure
The kidneys play a role in maintaining the balance of body fluids and regulating blood pressure, among other functions.
The kidneys are at the back of the abdominal cavity, with one sitting on each side of the spine.
The right kidney is generally slightly smaller and lower than the left, to make space for the liver.
Each kidney weighs 125–170 grams (g) in males and 115–155 g in females.
A tough, fibrous renal capsule surrounds each kidney. Beyond that, two layers of fat serve as protection. The adrenal glands lay on top of the kidneys.
Inside the kidneys are a number of pyramid-shaped lobes. Each consists of an outer renal cortex and an inner renal medulla. Nephrons flow between these sections. These are the urine-producing structures of the kidneys.
Blood enters the kidneys through the renal arteries and leaves through the renal veins. The kidneys are relatively small organs but receive 20–25 percent of the heart’s output.
Each kidney excretes urine through a tube called the ureter that leads to the bladder.
Function
The main role of the kidneys is maintaining homeostasis. This means they manage fluid levels, electrolyte balance, and other factors that keep the internal environment of the body consistent and comfortable.
They serve a wide range of functions.
Waste excretion
The kidneys remove a number of waste products and get rid of them in the urine. Two major compounds that the kidneys remove are:
• urea, which results from the breakdown of proteins
• uric acid from the breakdown of nucleic acids
Reabsorption of nutrients
Functions of the kidneys include removing waste, reabsorbing nutrients, and maintaining pH balance.
The kidneys reabsorb nutrients from the blood and transport them to where they would best support health.
They also reabsorb other products to help maintain homeostasis.
Reabsorbed products include:
• glucose
• amino acids
• bicarbonate
• sodium
• water
• phosphate
• chloride, sodium, magnesium, and potassium ions
Maintaining pH
In humans, the acceptable pH level is between 7.38 and 7.42. Below this boundary, the body enters a state of acidemia, and above it, alkalemia.
Outside this range, proteins and enzymes break down and can no longer function. In extreme cases, this can be fatal.
The kidneys and lungs help keep a stable pH within the human body. The lungs achieve this by moderating the concentration of carbon dioxide.
The kidneys manage the pH through two processes:
• Reabsorbing and regenerating bicarbonate from urine: Bicarbonate helps neutralize acids. The kidneys can either retain it if the pH is tolerable or release it if acid levels rise.
• Excreting hydrogen ions and fixed acids: Fixed or nonvolatile acids are any acids that do not occur as a result of carbon dioxide. They result from the incomplete metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. They include lactic acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.
Osmolality regulation
Osmolality is a measure of the body’s electrolyte-water balance, or the ratio between fluid and minerals in the body. Dehydration is a primary cause of electrolyte imbalance.
If osmolality rises in the blood plasma, the hypothalamus in the brain responds by passing a message to the pituitary gland. This, in turn, releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
In response to ADH, the kidney makes a number of changes, including:
• increasing urine concentration
• increasing water reabsorption
• reopening portions of the collecting duct that water cannot normally enter, allowing water back into the body
• retaining urea in the medulla of the kidney rather than excreting it, as it draws in water
Regulating blood pressure
The kidneys regulate blood pressure when necessary, but they are responsible for slower adjustments.
They adjust long-term pressure in the arteries by causing changes in the fluid outside of cells. The medical term for this fluid is extracellular fluid.
These fluid changes occur after the release of a vasoconstrictor called angiotensin II. Vasoconstrictors are hormones that cause blood vessels to narrow.
They work with other functions to increase the kidneys’ absorption of sodium chloride, or salt. This effectively increases the size of the extracellular fluid compartment and raises blood pressure.
Anything that alters blood pressure can damage the kidneys over time, including excessive alcohol consumption, smoking, and obesity.
Secretion of active compounds
The kidneys release a number of important compounds, including:
• Erythropoietin: This controls erythropoiesis, or the production of red blood cells. The liver also produces erythropoietin, but the kidneys are its main producers in adults.
• Renin: This helps manage the expansion of arteries and the volume of blood plasma, lymph, and interstitial fluid. Lymph is a fluid that contains white blood cells, which support immune activity, and interstitial fluid is the main component of extracellular fluid.
• Calcitriol: This is the hormonally active metabolite of vitamin D. It increases both the amount of calcium that the intestines can absorb and the reabsorption of phosphate in the kidney.

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The term forensic science involves forensic (or forensis, in Latin), which means a public discussion or debate. In a more modern context, however, forensic applies to courts or the judicial system. Combine that with science, and forensic science means applying scientific methods and processes to solving crimes.
From the 16th century, when medical practitioners began using forensic science to writings in the late 18th century that revealed the first evidence of modern pathology, to the formation of the first school of forensic science in 1909; the development of forensic science has been used to uncover mysteries, solve crimes, and convict or exonerate suspects of crime for hundreds of years.
The extraordinary scientific innovations and advancements in forensic science have allowed it to become a highly developed science that involves a number of disciplines and thousands of forensic scientists specializing in everything from DNA and botany to dentistry and toolmarks.
The Application of Forensic Science
The field of forensic science draws from a number of scientific branches, including physics, chemistry, and biology, with its focus being on the recognition, identification, and evaluation of physical evidence. It has become an essential part of the judicial system, as it utilizes a broad spectrum of sciences to achieve information relevant to criminal and legal evidence.
Forensic science may prove the existence of a crime, the perpetrator of a crime, or a connection to a crime through the:
• Examination of physical evidence
• Administration of tests
• Interpretation of data
• Clear and concise reporting
• Truthful testimony of a forensic scientist
Forensic science has become an integral part of many criminal cases and convictions, with objective facts through scientific knowledge serving both defense and prosecution arguments. The testimony of forensic scientists has become a trusted component of many civil and criminal cases, as these professionals are concerned not with the outcome of the case; only with their objective testimony based purely on scientific facts.
Forensic scientists perform both physical and chemical analyses on physical evidence obtained by crime scene investigators and law enforcement officials at the crime scene. These scientific experts use microscopic examining techniques, complex instruments, mathematical principles, scientific principles, and reference literature to analyze evidence as to identify both class and individual characteristics.
Although the majority of forensic scientists perform their jobs within the confines of the forensic laboratory or morgue, their work may also take them outside of the laboratory and to the crime scene, where they observe the scene and collect evidence. Forensic scientists may work for local, state and federal law enforcement agencies and government, private laboratories, and hospitals. They may also serve as independent forensic science consultants.
The Organization of Forensic Science
Due to the highly complex field of forensic science, forensic scientists are most often skilled in a particular area of forensic science, such as latent prints, questioned documents, trace evidence, or firearms, just to name a few.
Forensic scientists may be divided into three, major groups:
• Forensic Pathologists: These include medical examiners and other professionals who oversee autopsies and clinical forensic examinations
• Forensic Scientists: These include forensic professionals working in law enforcement, government, or private forensic laboratories who are responsible for dealing with any number of specific tests and analyses, such as toxicology, ballistics, trace evidence, etc.
• Associated Scientists: These include scientific professionals lending their knowledge to forensic science, such as forensic odontologists, forensic botanists, forensic anthropologists, etc. These scientists apply their knowledge to the forensic science field as to provide investigators with crucial information regarding everything from bite marks to insect infestation on the postmortem body.
Forensic science is therefore further organized into the following fields:
• Trace Evidence Analysis
• Forensic Toxicology
• Forensic Psychology
• Forensic Podiatry
• Forensic Pathology
• Forensic Optometry
• Forensic Odontology
• Forensic Linguistics
• Forensic Geology
• Forensic Entomology
• Forensic Engineering
• Forensic DNA Analysis
• Forensic Botany
• Forensic Archeology
• Forensic Anthropology
• Digital Forensics
• Criminalistics
Forensic science often includes even more specialized fields, such as forensic accounting, forensic engineering, and forensic psychiatry, among others.
The Study of Forensic Science
Although forensic science may be a very complex study, particularly in the areas of DNA and trace evidence, for example, the study of forensic science is grounded in fundamental concepts and techniques that are gathered from the natural sciences. In particular, the study of forensic science involves a multi-disciplinary approach that covers everything from biological methods to analytical chemistry techniques.
The majority of forensic scientists study a specific physical science, such as chemistry or biology, while others pursue forensic science degrees that are rooted in either chemistry or biology.
A comprehensive degree from a college or university draws from the biological sciences, as well as from the fields of criminal justice and the law. Students learn to develop an appreciation of both the scientific and social environment of the criminal justice system, and many students go on to focus their degrees on specific areas of forensic science, such as DNA, trace evidence, toxicology, latent prints, or questioned documents, for example.

The basic idea of television is "radio with pictures." In other words, where radio transmits a sound signal (the information being broadcast) through the air, television sends a picture signal as well. You probably know that these signals are carried by radio waves, invisible patterns of electricity and magnetism that race through the air at the speed of light (300,000 km or 186,000 miles per second). Think of the radio waves carrying information like the waves on the sea carrying surfers: the waves themselves aren't the information: the information surfs on top of the waves.
Television is really a three-part invention: the TV camera that turns a picture and sound into a signal; the TV transmitter that sends the signal through the air; and the TV receiver (the TV set in your home) that captures the signal and turns it back into picture and sound. TV creates moving pictures by repeatedly capturing still pictures and presenting these frames to your eyes so quickly that they seem to be moving. Think of TV as an electronic flick-book. The images are flickering on the screen so fast that they fuse together in your brain to make a moving picture (really, though they're really lots of still pictures displayed one after another).
When TV was first developed, all it could handle was black-and-white pictures; engineers struggled to figure out how to cope with color as well, which was a much more complex problem. Now the science of light tells us that any color can be made by combining a mixture of the three primary colors, red, green, and blue. So the secret of making color TV was to develop cameras that could capture separate red, green, and blue signals, transmission systems that could beam color signals through the air, and TV sets that could turn them back into a moving, multicolored image.

The scientific measuring and recording of the shock and vibrations of earthquakes is known as seismography.
Seismograph
A seismograph, or seismometer, is an instrument used to detect and record earthquakes. Generally, it consists of a mass attached to a fixed base. During an earthquake, the base moves and the mass does not. The motion of the base with respect to the mass is commonly transformed into an electrical voltage. The electrical voltage is recorded on paper, magnetic tape, or another recording medium. This record is proportional to the motion of the seismometer mass relative to the earth, but it can be mathematically converted to a record of the absolute motion of the ground. Seismograph generally refers to the seismometer and its recording device as a single unit.

Cell
The cell is a single power generating unit which stores the chemical energy and then converts it into electrical energy. It has two electrodes namely cathode and the anode. The cell has an electrolyte, a chemical substance that reacts with the electrodes and produces electric current.
The redox reaction occurs between the electrolyte and the electrodes and due to this reaction the electric current starts flowing through an external circuit. The cell is mainly classified into four types. They are the wet cell, dry cell, reserve cell and fuel cell. The wet cell uses a liquid electrolyte, and in the dry cell, the electrolyte is in the form of the powder.
Battery
The battery is a device which consists two or more units of an electrochemical cell. The positive terminal of the battery is known as the cathode whereas the negative terminal of the battery is known as the anode. The battery is of two types, i.e., the primary battery and the secondary battery.
The primary battery is irreversible or cannot be reused, whereas the secondary battery is rechargeable. In a primary cell, the chemical energy is inherently present, and in the secondary cell, the electrical energy is induced by the external source.

Key Difference Between Cell and Battery
1. The cell is a single unit device which converts the electric energy into chemical energy, whereas the battery is the group of the cell.
2. The cell is either dry, wet, reserve and fuel types depends on the types of electrolytes used, and the battery is either non-chargeable or rechargeable.
3. The cell has a single unit, and hence it is light and compact whereas the battery is a combination of cells which increase the size of the battery and make it’s bulky.
4. The cell supply power for a short time, whereas the battery supply power for the long duration.
5. The cell is cheap as compared to the battery.
6. The cell is mostly used in the clocks, lamp, etc. which requires less energy, whereas the battery is mostly used in the automobiles, inverter, etc. The galvanic cell, Daniel cell, Leclanche cell are some of the examples of the cell while lead-acid battery, lithium-ion battery, magnesium ion battery, etc. are the types of the battery.

In reference with diabetes – Hypoglycemia refers to the low blood sugar, while Hyperglycemia is high blood sugar. ‘Glycemia‘ is the word which indicates the presence of glucose in the blood. Both the medical condition can occur in the person having diabetes, which develops due to improper functioning of the insulin.
Key Differences Between Hypoglycemia and Hyperglycemia
1. Hypoglycemia and Hyperglycemia are the two medical condition related to the presence of glucose level in blood, the earlier one is the condition when the level of glucose in blood decrease below 70 mg per deciliter while the latter (Hyperglycemia) is the result of higher level of glucose in the blood which can be more than 130 mg per deciliter.
2. Hypoglycemia arises suddenly while Hyperglycemia arises slowly within days and time. Diagnosis of them is done through the blood test and also by observing signs and symptoms which include high pulse, pale skin, anxiety, confused the state of mind, headache, tantrums in a case of Hypoglycemia. In Hyperglycemia, increased thirst (Polydipsia), more urination than usual (Polyuria), rapid pulse rate, abdomen pain, weight loss is commonly noticed.
3. Hypoglycemia occurs due to an intake of more amount insulin (drugs used in treating Hyperglycemia), fasting, heavy and continues exercising while Hyperglycemia happens due to stress, overeating, an absence of insulin.
4. Diabetic Ketoacidosis is complications may arise due to Hypoglycemia; Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic Nonketonic Syndrome is the complication due to Hyperglycemia.
5. In Hypoglycemia patient is treated through an infusion of dextrose water or immediate intake of some form carbohydrate is given which will provide instant energy; In Hyperglycemia, treatment is through insulin administration in both type 1 diabetes as well in type2 diabetes.

Chemotherapy is a form of cancer treatment where a patient is given drugs designed to kill cancer cells. Radiation, on the other hand, is a type of cancer treatment where high doses of radiation are delivered to cancerous tumors in the body.
A major difference between chemo vs. radiation treatments is the delivery method. Since chemotherapy involves prescribed drugs, the entire body is exposed to the treatment. Radiation therapy, however, is targeted only at the area of the body where the cancer exists.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy refers to a type of cancer treatment in which a patient is given drugs that are designed to kill cancer cells. One or more drugs, called cytotoxic anti-neoplastic drugs, may be given at a time, either intravenously or orally. Chemotherapy works by targeting cells within the body that divide rapidly, which is one of the main characteristics of cancer cells. Some normal cells also divide rapidly, such as cells in hair follicles and the digestive tract. These cells are also damaged by chemotherapy, which accounts for many of the side effects patients experience when undergoing treatment.
Because every cancer is different depending on the exact genetic mutation that led to the cancer’s development, the treatment needs to be a multi-faceted approach. Many times, doctors will recommend a combination of chemotherapy and radiation. Attacking the cancer from multiple sides, often including surgery, can provide people with an improved chance of survival along with a significantly better quality of life. When will physicians choose one form of treatment over the other?
Doctors will recommend chemotherapy if there is a specific chemotherapeutic agent available for that type of cancer. Chemotherapy agents are often designed to target specific points in the replication and division cycle of cells. If there is an agent available for that cancer, it will be recommended. If not, then other treatment options will be explored.
Side Effects of Chemotherapy
When someone requires chemotherapy for cancer treatment, there are a number of different side effects that people need to be aware of. Some of the most common include:
• Fatigue: Chemotherapy drains the body of its energy, making people feel tired despite large amounts of sleep
• Hair Loss: Chemotherapy destroys healthy cells, such as hair, along with the cancerous cells
• Anemia: This is the medical term used to describe low blood cell counts. Low red blood cells contribute to the fatigue that people feel, low platelet counts lead to easy bruising and bleeding, and low white blood cells make people susceptible to infection
• Nausea: The nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy can be severe. Often, this is treated with a medication called Kytril
• Other complications: The possible development of secondary cancers
Radiation Treatment or Radiotherapy
Radiation treatment refers to a type of cancer treatment in which high-doses of radiation are delivered to cancerous tumors in the body. The beams of radiation pass through the skin and other materials to target a specific location where a tumor is located. Radiation damages the DNA of the cancer cells, causing them to die. The process of receiving radiation treatment is painless, and side effects are often limited to the areas of the body around the tumors that receive the treatment.
Radiation will kill all cells in its path and is used if doctors need a second treatment choice to augment chemotherapy. If doctors feel that all of the cancer can be removed with surgery and chemotherapy, radiation may not be needed. On the other hand, radiation is used if there is no chemotherapy agent available for that type of cancer.
Side Effects of Radiation
The side effects associated with radiation will be dependent on the location, as the side effects are generally limited to the area of the body that is exposed to the radiation. One important thing to consider is a healthy diet during radiation therapy, as a nutritious diet can help you recover from radiation. Some radiation side effects include:
• Skin conditions: Dry, tight skin at the radiation site or the development of skin sores of ulcers
• Fatigue and stiffness: Caused by damage to the muscles, ligaments, and tendons at that location
• Swelling (lymphedema): Caused by tissue damage of lymphatic system due to exposure to radiation
• Other complications: The possible development of secondary cancers