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  #11  
Old Sunday, March 30, 2008
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Magnet

A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. A simple permanent magnet like a bar magnet has two poles, called 'North' and 'South'. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.

Magnetic domain

Tiny physical regions in permanent magnets, approximately 0.01 to 1 mm, that have magnetically aligned atoms, giving the domain an overall polarity.

Magnetic dipole

A dipole with opposing magnetic poles.

Magnetic field

A field of force, defined in terms of the torque exerted on a test dipole.

Magnetic poles

The ends, or sides, of a magnet about which the force of magnetic attraction seems to be concentrated.

Magnetic quantum number

The magnetic quantum number is the third of a set of quantum numbers (the principal quantum number, the azimuthal quantum number, the magnetic quantum number, and the spin quantum number) which describe the unique quantum state of an electron and is designated by the letter m.

Magnetic reversal

The flipping of polarity of the earth's magnetic field as the north magnetic pole and the south magnetic pole exchange positions.

Magnification

The factor by which an image's linear size is increased (or decreased). Cf. angular magnification.

Magnitude

The size of a measurement of a vector and scalar quantities that consist of a number and unit only, no direction.

Mass defect

The difference between the sum of the masses of the individual nucleons forming a nucleus and the actual mass of that nucleus.

Mass number

The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus defines the mass number of an atom; used to identify isotopes; for example, Uranium 238.

Mass

The quantity of matter contained in a body is called its mass. The SI unit of mass is kg. The mass of a body remains the same everywhere. It is a measure of inertia, which means a resistance to a change of motion.

Matter

Objects that take up space and have mass are called matter.

Mechanical energy

The form of energy associated with machines, objects in motion, and objects having potential energy that results from gravity.

Mechanical wave

The waves, which need a material medium for their propagation, are called mechanical waves. Mechanical waves are also called elastic waves. Sound waves, water waves are examples of mechanical waves.

Melting point

The temperature at which a phase change of solid to liquid takes place; the same temperature as the freezing point for a given substance.

Mercury (metal)

Mercury is a metal which is liquid at room temperature. It is often used in liquid in glass thermometers. It is a toxic substance.

Metal

Matter having the physical properties of conductivity, malleability, ductility, and luster.

Meteorite

This is a lump of material which manages to reach Earth's surface, having only partially burned up on the way down.

Meteoroid

A solid object moving in interplanetary space, of a size considerably smaller than a asteroid and considerably larger than an atom or molecule.

Metre

The metre is the SI unit of length. The way it is defined means the speed of light is exactly 299,792,458 metres per second.

Microphone

A microphone is an input device in an electronic system. It converts sound energy into electrical energy. It is therefore a transducer.

Microwaves

Microwaves, along with light, UV, x-rays and gamma radiation form part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelength of microwaves is longer than that of infra-red radiation, but shorter than that of radio waves. Microwaves are used commonly in mobile phones and in microwave ovens.

Millibar

A measure of atmospheric pressure equivalent to 1.000 dynes per cm ^2.

Milli rem

A unit of radiation exposure equal to one-thousandth of a REM.

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

Instead of using a fuse to protect an electrical flex, a miniature circuit breaker (MCB) can be used . MCBs are sometimes known as Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers (ELCBs) or Residual Current Devices (RCDs).

Miscible fluids

Fluids that can mix in any proportion.

Mixture

Matter made of unlike parts that have a variable composition and can be separated into their component parts by physical means.

Mks system

Mks system system of units of measurement based on the metric system and having the meter of length, the kilogram of mass, and the second of time as its fundamental units.

Model

A mental or physical representation of something that cannot be observed directly that is usually used as an aid to understanding.

Moderator

In a nuclear fission reactor, the moderator slows fast neutrons down. Slower moving neutrons are more effective at keeping the chain reaction going by causing more uranium nuclei to break apart. Each fission event releases fast neutrons - the moderator is therefore required to slow them down.

Modulation

Modulation means change. In physics, this is usually used to describe changes made to the properties of a radio-wave or microwave carrier wave in order to carry information. There are two types of modulation - amplitude modulation and frequency modulation.

Mole

An amount of a substance that contains Avogadro's number of atoms, ions, molecules, or any other chemical unit; a mole is thus 6.02 x 10^23 atoms, ions, or other chemical units.

Molecule

A group of atoms stuck together.

Momentum

Momentum is considered to be a measure of the quantity of motion in a body. The momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and velocity. Its SI units are kg m /s.

Morse Code

Morse Code is a versatile and simple method of transmitting information. It uses any method of telecommunication (such as flashing lights, tap keys and wires or radio transmissions) to send information coded as sequences of dots and dashes (e.g. short and long pulses of voltage or flashes of light).

Motor

Motors convert electrical energy into kinetic energy, along with some unwanted sound and heat energy.

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  #12  
Old Sunday, March 30, 2008
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Natural frequency

The frequency of vibration of an elastic object that depends on the size, composition, and shape of the object.

Negative electric charge

One of the two types of electric charge; repels other negative charges and attracts positive charges.

Negative ion

Atom or particle that has a surplus, or imbalance, of electrons and, thus, a negative charge.

Net force

The resulting force after all vector forces have been added; if a net force is zero, all the forces have canceled each other and there is not an unbalanced force.

Neutron

Neutrons are sub-atomic particles. They are uncharged.
They have a mass of mn = 1.675 x 10-27 kg.

Newton

Sir Isaac Newton, 1642-1727. Newton tried farming before going on to develop his three Laws of Motion. Newton also contributed to other branches of science and maths.

Newton

The newton (N) is the SI unit of force. An unbalanced force of 1 newton will cause a mass of 1 kg to accelerate at 1ms-2.

Newton Balance

This is a spring balance. It can be used to measure force, including weight forces. All forces are measured in newtons.

Newton's First Law

If the forces acting on an object are all balanced, then the object will not change in its motion. It will not speed up, slow down, change direction or shape. IF it is not moving, then it will stay stationary.

Newton's law of gravitation

The gravitational force of attraction acting between any two particles is directly proportional to the product of their masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The force of attraction acts along the line joining the two particles. Real bodies having spherical symmetry act as point masses with their mass assumed to be concentrated at their center of mass.

Newton's Second Law

If forces are not balanced on an object then it will either speed up, slow down or change direction - this means it will have to accelerate.

Newton's third law of motion

To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. The action and reaction act on two different bodies simultaneously.

Noise

Sounds made up of groups of waves of random frequency and intensity.

Non-Renewable Energy Sources

An energy resource that is not replaced or is replaced only very slowly by natural processes. Primary examples of non-renewable energy resources are the fossil fuels--oil, natural gas, and coal.

Noninertial frame

An accelerating frame of reference, in which Newton's first law is violated.

Non Uniform Acceleration

When the velocity of a body increases by unequal amounts in equal intervals of time, it is said to have non-uniform acceleration.

Nonuniform circular motion

Circular motion in which the magnitude of the velocity vector changes.

Non Uniform Speed

When a body travels unequal distances in equal intervals of time then it is said to have non-uniform speed.

Non Uniform Velocity

When a body covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time in a particular direction, or when it covers equal distances in equal intervals but changes it's direction it is said to have non uniform velocity.

Normalization

The property of probabilities that the sum of the probabilities of all possible outcomes must equal one.

Normal force

The force that keeps two objects from occupying the same space.

Normal Line

In optics and wave applications, the normal line is an imaginary line drawn at right angles to a surface. If the surface is curved, then the tangent to the surface must be drawn first, with the normal being drawn at right angles to the tangent.

Normal

A line perpendicular to the surface of a boundary.

NOT gate (inverter)

The NOT gate or inverter is a digital logic gate that implements logical negation.

Nuclear Chain Reaction

A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons released in fission produce an additional fission in at least one further nucleus. This nucleus in turn produces neutrons, and the process repeats. The process may be controlled (nuclear power) or uncontrolled (nuclear weapons).

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is the energy contained within the nucleus of an atom. It can be released in nuclear fission or nuclear fusion.

Nuclear fission

Nuclear reaction of splitting a massive nucleus into more stable, less massive nuclei with an accompanying release of energy.

Nuclear force

One of four fundamental forces, a strong force of attraction that operates over very short distances between subatomic particles; this force overcomes the electric repulsion of protons in a nucleus and binds the nucleus together.

Nuclear fusion

Nuclear reaction of low mass nuclei fusing together to form more stable and more massive nuclei with an accompanying release of energy.

Nuclear reactor

Steel vessel in which a controlled chain reaction of fissionable materials releases energy.

Nucleons

Name used to refer to both the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Nucleus

The center of an atom. The nucleus contains tiny particles called protons and neutrons. Orbiting around the nucleus are electrons.
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Old Sunday, March 30, 2008
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Objective Lens

In a refracting telescope the objective lens is the large lens which collects the dim light from objects in the night sky. The purpose of the objective is to collect as much light as possible. It does not magnify the image. With a larger objective, the image will be brighter and fainter objects will become visible.

Oblique

Describes a force that acts at some other angle, one that is not a direct repulsion or attraction.

Optical Fibres

Optically-pure glass fibre through which light can be reflected to transmit images or data from one end to the other.

Open Circuit

This is one of two types of circuit fault (the other being a short circuit). In an open circuit fault, there is a break in the circuit. This break will prevent any current from flowing. Open circuit faults register on an ohmmeter with an extremely high resistance.

Ohm (W)

The ohm is the SI unit of resistance. The resistance of an electrical component is one ohm (1 W) if, when a voltage of 1 V applied across it causes a current of 1 A to flow through it.

Ohm's Law

Georg S. Ohm discovered that for a conductor at constant temperature, the current which flows through the conductor is proportional to the voltage across it. The constant of proportionality is called the resistance of the conductor. The law is usually written as:
V = I R

Ohmic

Describes a substance in which the flow of current between two points is proportional to the voltage difference between them.

OR Gate

An OR gate is a logical device. It usually takes two inputs (although more are possible) and produces only one output. The logic state of the output depends on the logic state of the inputs.

Operational definition

A definition that states what operations should be carried out to measure the thing being defined.

Orbital

The region of space around the nucleus of an atom where an electron is likely to be found.

Origin

The only point on a graph where both the x and y variables have a value of zero at the same time.

Oscilloscope

Electronic instrument for viewing and measuring electrical and electronic signals.

Oscillatory motion

The to and fro motion of a body about its mean position is called oscillatory motion. Oscillatory motion is also called vibratory motion. Oscillatory motion is periodic in nature.
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Old Monday, March 31, 2008
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Parabola

The mathematical curve whose graph has y proportional to x2.

Parallel Beam

A parallel beam is one which does not diverge or converge - its width stays the same as the wave (which could be light or microwaves for example) travels out from its source. Parallel beams are produced using curved (parabolic) reflector dishes. Parallel light beams can also be produced using convex lenses (e.g. in binoculars or telescopes). Parallel beams can be used to send waves over much greater distances than would otherwise be possible.

Parallel Circuit

In a parallel circuit, each component is connected directly across the terminals of the power supply. Therefore, the voltage across any component is the same as the voltage across the power supply terminals.

Pauli exclusion principle

No two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers; thus, a maximum of two electrons can occupy a given orbital.

Peak

This refers to waves. The peak of a wave (also called the crest) is simply the part of the wave with the greatest amplitude.




Peak Voltage

This is the maximum voltage reached by an a.c. source in each cycle. It is very similar to the peak or crest of a wave.

Period

The time required for one cycle of a periodic motion (q.v.).

Periodic motion

Motion that repeats itself over and over.

Periodic wave

A wave in which the particles of the medium oscillate continuously about their mean positions regularly at fixed intervals of time is called a periodic wave.

Permeability

The ability to transmit fluids through openings, small passageways, or gaps.

Persistence of Vision

This is the effect which allows the human brain to be fooled into thinking that the 25 frames per second of TV is actually continuous motion. The retina retains each image for a fraction of a second and so provided that the changes between the frames are small enough, smooth motion will be seen. (The phosphor dots which make up the screen also continue to emit light for a short time after the electron beam has passed - this effect also helps to give the impression of a smooth motion).

Photographic_film

Photographic film can be used to detect visible light, x-rays, or alpha, beta and gamma radiation. These radiations will blacken film due to a chemical reaction.

Phase change

The action of a substance changing from one state of matter to another; a phase change always absorbs or releases internal potential energy that is not associated with a temperature change.

Phase

The particles in a wave, which are in the same state of vibration, i.e. the same position and the same direction of motion are said to be in the same phase.

Phases of matter

The different physical forms that matter can take as a result of different molecular arrangements, resulting in characteristics of the common phases of a solid, liquid, or gas.

Photon

A particle of light.

Photoelectric effect

The ejection, by a photon, of an electron from the surface of an object.

Physical change

A change of the state of a substance but not the identity of the substance pitch the frequency of a sound wave.

Planck's constant

Proportionality constant in the relationship between the energy of vibrating molecules and their frequency of vibration; a value of 6.63 x 10^-34 joule-sec.

Plasma

A phase of matter; a very hot gas consisting of electrons and atoms that have been stripped of their electrons because of high kinetic energies.

Plastic strain

An adjustment to stress in which materials become molded or bent out of shape under stress and do not return to their original shape after the stress is released.

Polarized

Light whose constituent transverse waves are all vibrating in the same plane; also known as plane polarized light.

Polaroid

A film that transmits only polarized light.

Positive electric charge

One of the two types of electric charge; repels other positive charges and attracts negative charges.

Positive ion

Atom or particle that has a net positive charge due to an electron or electrons being torn away.

Potential Divider (potentiometer)

A variable resistor, when used with all three of its terminals, it is called a potentiometer or potential divider. This arrangement is for controlling voltage.

Potential Energy

Potential energy means stored energy. Some examples are chemical, elastic, nuclear and gravitational - all forms of potential energy.

Power

Power is the rate of transfer of energy. The SI unit of power is the watt (W). One watt is the same as one joule per second.
The formula which relates power (P), energy (E) and time (t) is:
E = P x t
In electrical applications, there are other equations for power, which involve current, voltage and resistance. They are:
P = I V
P = I2R
P = V2 / R

Power (of a lens)

Lens power describes the curvature of a lens. High power lenses have a short focal length and are highly curved. A positive lens power indicates a convex lens and negative power indicates a concave lens. Lens power, P, is measured in Dioptres (D) and is related to the focal length, f, in metres through the formula:
P = 1 / f

Power Gain

Power gain has no units of its own. It expresses how many times more power the output signal from a process has compared to its input power. A closely related concept is that of voltage gain. Power Gain = Output Power / Input Power.

Presbyopia (presbyopic eye)

A form of farsightedness occurring after middle age, caused by a diminished elasticity of the crystalline lens.

Pressure

Defined as force per unit area; for example, pounds per square inch (lb/in^2).

Primary Colours

There are three primary colours (of light): red, green and blue. Any two of these colours can be mixed to give a secondary colour as follows:
Red + Green = Yellow
Red + Blue = Magenta (pink)
Green + Blue = Cyan (Turquoise)
If all three colours are mixed together, white light can be obtained.

These are the primary and secondary colours of light. The primary and secondary colours of pigment (paint) are not the same.






Primary coil

Part of a transformer; a coil of wire that is connected to a source of alternating current.

Primary Mirror

In a reflecting telescope, the primary mirror collects the light from the objects under study in the night sky. Reflectors can be made much bigger than the objective lenses of a refracting telescope. They are also easier to make, since their is only one optical surface to prepare. The primary mirror itself is usually made from glass, with an aluminium coating on its forward face. The mirror is made as large as possible for the same reasons as for the objective lens of a refractor.

Principle of calorimetry

If no heat is lost to the surroundings and there is no change of state also.

Principle quantum number

From quantum mechanics model of the atom, one of four descriptions of the energy state of an electron wave; this quantum number describes the main energy level of an electron in terms of its most probable distance from the nucleus.

Principle of Reversibility

This applies to light rays passing through any system of mirrors or lenses. Basically, it means if a ray of light follows a path when going, say, from left to right, then another ray of light going from right to left will follow the same path in reverse.

Probability

The likelihood that something will happen, expressed as a number between zero and one.

Probability distribution

A curve that specifies the probabilities of various random values of a variable; areas under the curve correspond to probabilities.

Projectile

An object thrown into space either horizontally or at an acute angle and under the action of gravity is called a projectile. The path followed by a projectile is called its trajectory. The horizontal distance traveled by a projectile is called its range. The time taken by a projectile from the moment it is thrown until it touches the ground is called its time of flight.

Proof

A measure of ethanol concentration of an alcoholic beverage; proof is double the concentration by volume; for example, 50 percent by volume is 100 proof.

Properties

Qualities or attributes that, taken together, are usually unique to an object; for example, color, texture, and size.

Proportionality constant

A constant applied to a proportionality statement that transforms the statement into an equation.

Proton

Protons are sub-atomic particles. They carry a positive electrical charge (qp = +1.602 x 10-19 C). They have a mass of mp = 1.673 x 10-27 kg.

Pulse

A wave of short duration confined to a small portion of the medium at any given time is called a pulse. A pulse is also called a wave pulse.
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Old Tuesday, April 01, 2008
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Quanta

Fixed amounts; usually referring to fixed amounts of energy absorbed or emitted by matter.
"
Quantum number

A numerical label used to classify a quantum state.

Quantum mechanics

Model of the atom based on the wave nature of subatomic particles, the mechanics of electron waves; also called wave mechanics.

Quality factor

The number of oscillations required for a system's energy to fall off by a factor of 535 due to damping.

Quantized

Describes quantity such as money or electrical charge that can only exist in certain amounts.

Quasar

Quasar means 'quasi-stellar radar source'. These are objects which look like stars but are not. (They are only visible in big telescopes, because of their great distance from us. A typical quasar differs most noticeably from a star because it gives off the same intensity of light as would one million suns).





R




Rad

A measure of radiation received by a material (radiation absorbed dose).

Radar Gun

A hand-held device used by police to measure the speed of passing cars.

Radial

Parallel to the radius of a circle; the in-out direction.

Radiant energy

The form of energy that can travel through space; for example, visible light and other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Radiation

The word 'radiation' can refer to electromagnetic radiation (including gamma radiation) or to alpha and beta particles released from radioactive decay. Radiation can cause ionisation of neutral atoms, by knocking away electrons. This can damage or kill cells. In this way, radiation can cause cancer and be used to treat cancer.

Radiation (heat)

Heat radiation is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum, conventionally called 'infra-red'. Heat can be transferred from a hot object to a cold one by radiation, convection or conduction. Transfer by radiation is possible in a vacuum (or in presence of matter).

Radioactive decay constant

A specific constant for a particular isotope that is the ratio of the rate of nuclear disintegration per unit of time to the total number of radioactive nuclei.

Radioactive decay series

Series of decay reactions that begins with one radioactive nucleus that decays to a second nucleus that decays to a third nucleus and so on until a stable nucleus is reached.

Radioactive decay

The natural spontaneous disintegration or decomposition of a nucleus.

Radioactivity

Spontaneous emission of particles or energy from an atomic nucleus as it disintegrates.

Radio

A radio is an electronic system which allows a listener to hear programmers sent from a transmitter. The main components of a radio (in order) are: the aerial, tuner, decoder, amplifier and loudspeaker.

Radioactive

A material is said to be radioactive if it emits radiation. Radioactive materials have unstable nuclei which have a tendency to decay. It is when a decay occurs that radiation is released from the nucleus.

Radiometric Dating

This is the name given to the general technique of using half-life to find out the age of samples of rock, fossil or material which is organic in nature. Carbon dating is used to date organic material up to about 30 000 years.

Radio Telescope

Astronomers use radio telescopes to help build up a picture of the Universe. Since radio waves can penetrate Earth's atmosphere, we can detect them by building large antennae or dishes. The radio part of the spectrum provides an alternative and complimentary view of the Universe - importantly radio waves convey information about much lower energy events than visible light does, much of what a radio telescope 'sees' will be not appear in visible light images.

Radio Transmitter

A source of radio waves. Radio transmitters are usually large vertical conducting masts which emit radio waves. Moving electrons in the metal of the mast radiate the radio waves.

Rem

A unit for measuring a person's exposure to radioactivity.

Red shift

This refers to the fact that the spectrum of distant galaxies is shifted towards the long wavelength 'red' end of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Rarefaction

A part of a longitudinal wave in which the density of the particles of the medium is less than the normal density is called a rarefaction.

Real image

An image generated by a lens or mirror that can be projected onto a screen.

Rectilinear Motion

The motion of a body in a straight line is called rectilinear motion.

Reed Relay

Relays can be used for remote control of electrical circuits in dangerous places. For example, a circuit within a nuclear reactor can be switched on or off with a reed relay. In general, relays can be used to switch high current circuits using low current circuits.

Reed Switch

A simple switch, controlled by a magnet. The reed switch can be designed either to make or break contact when a magnetic field is present.

Reflected ray

A line representing direction of motion of light reflected from a boundary.

Reflection

The change when light, sound, or other waves bounce backwards off a boundary. All waves can be reflected from an obstacle - for example, water waves can reflect off a harbour wall and light waves can reflect off a mirror.

The law of reflection is very simple:
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.





Refraction

All waves can be refracted. Refraction means bending. Light rays refract when they pass through a medium of different density (e.g. when light travels from air into glass). When light passes into a region of increased density (e.g. air to glass) it bends towards the normal. When light passes into a region of reduced density, it bends away from the normal.

Relative humidity

The percentage of the amount of water vapor actually present in a certain volume of the air to the amount of water vapor needed to saturate it is called the relative humidity of the air.

Renewable Energy Sources

Solar, wind, geothermal, tidal and wave power plants are examples of renewable energy resources.

Repulsive

Describes a force that tends to push the two participating objects apart.

Resistance

The ratio of the voltage difference to the current in an object made of an ohmic substance.The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (W).

Resistor

A resistor is an electronic component which opposes the flow of current.

Resonance

The tendency of a vibrating system to respond most strongly to a driving force whose frequency is close to its own natural frequency of vibration.

Restoring force

The force which tends to bring an oscillating body towards its mean position whenever it is displaced from the mean position is called the restoring force.

Rest mass

The rest mass of an object is the inertial mass that an object has when it is at rest.

Resultant Force

A single force, which acts on a body to produce the same effect in it as, done by all other forces collectively, is called the resultant force.

Retardation

Negative acceleration is called retardation. In retardation the velocity of a body decreases with time.

Reverberation

Apparent increase in volume caused by reflections, usually arriving within 0.1 second after the original sound.

Rheostat

A variable resistor, when used with just two of its terminals, it is called a rheostat. This arrangement is for controlling current.

Ring Circuit

This is a special type of parallel circuit, used in household wiring. The advantage of the ring circuit is that thinner, cheaper cable can be used. This is because there are two separate paths to any socket. Therefore, if each cable is capable of carrying up to 18 A, then the maximum current the ring can draw from the consumer unit is 36 A.

R.M.S. Voltage

This is a kind of average voltage of an a.c. source (averaged over a complete cycle). It is the effective voltage delivered by the source and can be used in power calculations.

Rotor Coil

In an a.c. generator, the rotor coil is a rotating electromagnet, with a d.c. power supply. It replaces the permanent rotating magnets of a dynamo.
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Old Wednesday, April 02, 2008
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Saturated air

Air in which equilibrium exists between evaporation and condensation; the relative humidity is 100 percent.

Saturated solution

The apparent limit to dissolving a given solid in a specified amount of water at a given temperature; a state of equilibrium that exists between dissolving solute and solute coming out of solution.

Scalar

A quantity that has no direction in space, only an amount.

Scientific law

A relationship between quantities, usually described by an equation in the physical sciences; is more important and describes a wider range of phenomena than a scientific principle.

Scientific principle

A relationship between quantities concerned with a specific, or narrow range of observations and behavior.

Scintillation Counter

These devices detect gamma rays and form part of the gamma cameras used in radioactive tracer examinations. Scintillations are flashes of light given out by fluorescent materials (e.g zinc sulphide). When radiation is absorbed by zinc sulphide, it causes the zinc sulphide to produce a small burst of light. These can be electronically counted.

Second law of motion

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on that object and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

Second

The second is the SI unit of time.

Secondary coil

Part of a transformer, a coil of wire in which the voltage of the original alternating current in the primary coil is stepped up or down by way of electromagnetic induction.

Second's Pendulum

A simple pendulum whose time period on the surface of earth is 2 seconds is called the second''s pendulum.

Semiconductors

Elements that have properties between those of a metal and those of a nonmetal sometimes conducting an electric current and sometimes acting like an electrical insulator depending on the conditions and their purity; also called metalloid.

Series Circuit

In a series circuit, each component is connected to the other to form a 'chain' between the terminals of the power supply. The rules for current, voltage and resistance in a series circuit are as follows:
Vsupply = V1 + V2 + V3 + ...
Isupply = I1 = I2 = I3 = ...
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

The mnemonic VISA may help to remember the rules for voltage and current in series and parallel circuits:

VISA: Voltages In Series Add

Shear stress

Produced when two plates slide past one another or by one plate sliding past another plate that is not moving.

Short Circuit

This is one of two types of circuit fault (the other being an open circuit). A short circuit fault is often caused by wires touching, allowing current to bypass a component in the circuit. Short circuit faults register on an ohmmeter with almost zero resistance.

Short-sighted

This refers to a problem with the accommodation ability of an eye. Basically, the eye can focus on near-by objects with no problem, but can't properly focus on far-away objects. This is called myopia. This is because the retina is too far from the lens - so that the focal point falls short of the retina. Short-sightedness can be treated by wearing spectacles which are concave in shape and therefore help to focus the image properly by extending the overall focal length of the glasses and eye.


Sievert (Sv)

The sievert is the SI unit of dose equivalent. Since 1 Sv is a massive dose of radiation, units of microsieverts are often used instead.

Significant figures

Digits that contribute to the accuracy of a measurement.

Simple harmonic motion

The vibratory motion that occurs when there is a restoring force opposite to and proportional to a displacement.

Simple Pendulum

A heavy point mass (actually a small metallic ball), suspended by a light inextensible string from a frictionless rigid support is called a simple pendulum. A simple pendulum is a simple machine based on the effect of gravity.

Sink

A point at which field vectors converge.

SI Units

SI stands for System International. This is the standard system of units used worldwide and includes the metre, the second, the kilogram, the ampere, the kelvin, and the coulomb.

Solenoid

A solenoid is a coil of wire with an electrical current flowing through it. An iron core, inserted into the coil, has the effect of increasing the strength of the magnetic field produced. An increased current or a greater number of turns on the coil will also increase the strength of the magnetic field.

Solar Cell

A solar cell is a photovoltaic semiconductor material which converts light energy into electrical energy. Solar cells are transducers.

Solids

A phase of matter with molecules that remain close to fixed equilibrium positions due to strong interactions between the molecules, resulting in the characteristic definite shape and definite volume of a solid.

Sonic boom

Sound waves that pile up into a shock wave when a source is traveling at or faster than the speed of sound.

Sound

A longitudinal wave which travels through a medium, usually air. Sound also travels through liquids (e.g. water) and solids (e.g. steel). The volume (loudness) of sound is measured using the decibel (dB) scale.

Source

A point from which field vectors diverge; often used more inclusively to refer to points of either convergence or divergence.

Specific Heat Capacity

The energy required to increase the temperature of 1kg of a material by 1 degree Celsius. This is also the energy released during cooling. Water has a high specific heat capacity at 4200 Jkg-1 oC-1. Metals have much lower heat capacities. Physically, this is why metals heat up and cool down more rapidly than water - less energy is required to bring about a given change in temperature.

Specific Latent Heat of Fusion

This is the latent heat per kilogram of material required to change its phase from solid to liquid (i.e. heat energy required to melt 1 kg of material). It is also the heat energy released (in joules) if 1 kg of material 'freezes' from liquid to solid.

Specific Latent Heat of Vapourisation

This is the latent heat per kilogram of material required to change the material's phase from liquid to gas (i.e. heat energy required to boil or vapourise 1 kg of material). It is also the heat energy released (in joules) if 1 kg of material condenses from solid to liquid.

Spectroscope

A device using the diffraction of light to split the visible spectrum up into the rainbow of colours. The spectroscope is used in astronomy to study the spectra of light from the stars.

Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum includes all types of electromagnetic radiation(EMR). All types of EMR travel at the same speed: the speed of light, which is 3 x 108 ms-1. Starting with the lowest frequency and longest wavelength radiation, the spectrum consists of:
  • Radiowaves
  • Microwaves
  • Infrared Radiation
  • Visible Radiation (red, orange, yellow, green , blue, indigo, violet)
  • Ultraviolet Radiation
  • X-Ray Radiation
  • Cosmic Radiation

The visible spectrum includes red, orange, yellow, green , blue, indigo, violet. Red light has a wavelength of approximately 700 nm and violet light's wavelength is roughly 400 nm. All other colours have a wavelength between these two limits.

Speed

The distance traveled by a body in one unit of time is called its speed. The SI unit of speed is the metre per second.

Speed Time Graph

This is a graph with time plotted along the horizontal axis, and with speed up the vertical axis.

Specular reflection

Reflection from a smooth surface, in which the light ray leaves at the same angle at which it came in.

Spin quantum number

The quantum number describes the spin orientation of an electron relative to an external magnetic field.

Spin

The built-in angular momentum possessed by a particle even when at rest.

Stable equilibrium

One in which a force always acts to bring the object back to a certain point.

Standing waves

Condition where two waves of equal frequency traveling in opposite directions meet and form stationary regions of maximum displacement due to constructive interference and stationary regions of zero displacement due to destructive interference.

State of Motion

When a body changes it's position with respect to a fixed point in it's surroundings then it is said to be in a state of motion. The states of rest and motion are relative to the frame of reference.

State of Rest

When a body does not change its position with respect to a fixed point in it's surrounding, then it is said to be in a state of rest.

Static friction

A friction force between surfaces that are not slipping past each other.

Stator Coil

In a dynamo, the stator coil is the the fixed coil which has an electric current (a.c.) induced in it by the motion of the nearby rotor (permanent magnet).

Steady state

The behavior of a vibrating system after it has had plenty of time to settle into a steady response to a driving force. In the steady state, the same amount of energy is pumped into the system during each cycle as is lost to damping during the same period.

Steam-point

It is the temperature of steam over pure boiling water under 1 atm pressure. The steam point is taken as the upper fixed point (100 deg C or 212 deg F) for temperature scales.

Streamlined

Streamlined objects are designed to reduce fluid drag forces. All rough or angular edges are removed, leaving only smooth curved surfaces. Fish, dolphins, falcons, air interceptors and racing cars are good examples of streamlined objects.

Strong nuclear force

The force that holds nuclei together against electrical repulsion.

Superconductors

Some materials in which, under certain conditions, the electrical resistance approaches zero.

Super-cooled

Water in the liquid phase when the temperature is below the freezing point.

Supersaturated

Containing more than the normal saturation amount of a solute at a given temperature.

System International

Fancy name for the metric system.
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T




Tangential

Tangent to a curve. In circular motion, used to mean tangent to the circle, perpendicular to the radial direction.

Temperature

A measure of the energy in a substance. The more heat energy in the substance, the higher the temperature.

Tensional stress

The opposite of compressional stress; occurs when one part of a plate moves away from another part that does not move.

Thermal Capacity

The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of the whole body by one degree (1K or 1deg C) is called its thermal capacity.

Thermal energy

Thermal energy is used to mean the total amount of energy possessed by an object.

Thermal Equilibrium

When the two bodies in contact are at the same temperature and there is no flow of heat between them, these are said to be in thermal equilibrium. The common temperature of the bodies in thermal equilibrium is called the equilibrium temperature.

Thermal Expansion

The increase in the size of an object on heating is called thermal expansion.

Thermistor

A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor whose primary function is to exhibit a change in electrical resistance with a change in body temperature.
When subjected to low temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is high.
When subjected to a high temperature, the resistance of a thermistor is low.

Thermocouple

When two different metals are joined together, they will convert heat energy into electrical energy. This is the basis of the thermocouple. Thermocouples are transducers.

Thermometer

It is a device used for numerical measurement of temperature. The commonly used thermometer is mercury thermometer.

Third law of motion

Whenever two objects interact, the force exerted on one object is equal in size and opposite in direction to the force exerted on the other object; forces always occur in matched pairs that are equal and opposite.

Time Period (of a wave)

The time taken by a wave to travel through a distance equal to its wavelength is called its time period. It is denoted by T. Time period of a wave=1/frequency of the wave.

Time Period (of an oscillation)

The time taken to complete one oscillation is called the time period of an oscillation. The time period of a pendulum does not depend upon the mass of the bob and amplitude of oscillation. The time period of a pendulum is directly proportional to the square root of the length and inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration due to gravity.

Torque

The rate of change of angular momentum; a numerical measure of a force's ability to twist on an object.

Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

Total internal reflection occurs when light, instead of being refracted at a boundary between media of different densities, the light is totally reflected off the inside surface.

Tracer

Radioactive tracers are injected into a patient to examine the function of organs and blood supplies within the body. Technetium is often used as it emits gamma radiation which can be detected outside the patient's body.

Transducer

Any device which converts one form of energy into another. For example, a microphone, a TV, a car or a solar cell.

Transistor

A semiconductor device which can be used as an electronic switch.

Transformation

The mathematical relationship between the variables such as x and t, as observed in different frames of reference.

Transformer

A device used to increase or decrease electricity’s voltage and current, which consists of two separate coils. Transformers only work with a.c.

Transverse waves

A wave in which the particles of the medium oscillate in a direction perpendicular of the direction of propagation of wave is called the transverse wave. Water waves, light waves and radio waves are examples of transverse waves.

Trough

This refers to waves. The trough of a wave is simply the part of the wave with the least (most negative) amplitude.





Truth Table

A table showing the output logic states of a logic gate or logic system for all given combinations of input logic states.

Tuner (Radio or TV)

The tuner in a radio or TV allows the user to select one channel from the many channels which arrive at the aerial. The output signal from the tuner section is then passed to the decoder.

Two-stage Rocket

Essentially, two rockets one on top of the other. The top rocket will not ignite until the first rocket is finished and jettisoned. The advantage over a big single stage rocket is that all the dead weight of the empty first stage can be cut away and left to fall back to Earth. This can greatly reduce the total mass of fuel required to reach orbit.
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U


Ultrasonic

Sound waves too high in frequency to be heard by the human ear; frequencies above 20,000Hz.

Ultraviolet

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is invisible. It is a form of electromagnetic radiation, with a wavelength just shorter than that of visible violet light.

Unbalanced forces

When a number of forces act on a body and the resultant force is not zero, then the forces are said to be unbalanced.

Uniform Acceleration

When the velocity of a body increases by equal amounts in equal intervals of time it is said to have uniform acceleration.

Uniform circular motion

Circular motion in which the magnitude of the velocity vector remains constant.

Uniform Speed

When a body travels equal distances in equal intervals of time then it is said to have uniform speed.

Uniform Velocity

When a body travels along a straight line in particular direction and covers equal distances in equal intervals of time it is said to have uniform velocity.

Universal law of gravitation

Every object in the universe is attracted to every other object with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centers of the two masses.

Unpolarized light

Light consisting of transverse waves vibrating in all conceivable random directions.

Unstable equilibrium

One in which any deviation of the object from its equilibrium position results in a force pushing it even farther away.





V



Van der Waals force

General term for weak attractive intermolecular forces.

Vapor

The gaseous state of a substance that is normally in the liquid state.

Variable Resistor

Variable resistors are resistors whose resistance can be altered, usually by means of a rotating or sliding contact. They can be used as potential dividers or rheostats.

Vector Quantity

A quantity, which needs both magnitude and direction to describe it, is called a vector quantity. Such a physical quantity should also follow the vector law of addition.

Velocity

Distance traveled by a body in a particular direction per unit time is called its velocity. It can also be defined as the displacement of the body per unit time. It is a vector quantity. The SI units of velocity are m / s.

Vibration

A back and forth motion that repeats itself.

Virtual image

An image where light rays appear to originate from a mirror or lens; this image cannot be projected on a screen.

Voltage drop

The electric potential difference across a resistor or other part of a circuit that consumes power.

Volt

The volt is the SI unit of voltage. In fact 1 V = 1 JC-1 (i.e. a charge of one coulomb will gain or lose one joule of potential energy when moved through a potential difference of one volt).

Voltmeter

A device for measuring voltage differences.

Voltage

Electrical potential energy per unit charge that will be possessed by a charged particle at a certain point in space.

Voltage Divider

A simple circuit branch consisting of two resistors connected in series. The voltage across the terminals of the branch is shared between the two resistors, with the bigger resistor getting the biggest share.

Voltage Gain

Voltage gain has no units of its own. It expresses how many times greater the output signal voltage is (from some component) compared to the input voltage. A closely related concept is that of power gain. Voltage Gain = Output Voltage / Input Voltage.

Vector

A quantity that has both an amount (magnitude) and a direction in space.
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W



Watt

The watt (W) is the SI Unit of power. It is equivalent to one joule per second (Js-1).

Wave-particle duality

The idea that light is both a wave and a particle.

Wave function

The numerical measure of an electron wave, or in general of the wave corresponding to any quantum mechanical particle.

Wave mechanics

Alternate name for quantum mechanics derived from the wavelike properties of subatomic particles.

Wave motion

The movement of a disturbance produced in one part of a medium to another involving the transfer of energy but not the transfer of matter is called wave motion.

Wave period

The time required for two successive crests of the wave to pass a given point.

Wave velocity

The distance traveled by a wave in one second is called the wave velocity. The wave velocity of a wave depends upon the nature of the medium through which it passes.

Wave

A disturbance or oscillation that moves through a medium.






Wavelength

This is the length of a wave between any two equivalent points. It is easiest to measure from crest to crest or from trough to trough. The SI unit of wavelength is the metre, although kilometres, millimetres, micrometres and nanometres are also used.






Weak nuclear force

The force responsible for beta decay.

Weight

The force with which a body is attracted towards the center of the earth is called its weight. The SI unit of weight is N. The gravitational units of weight are kg-wt and g-wt.

Weightlessness

The state when the apparent weight of a body becomes zero is called the state of weightlessness. All objects while falling freely under the action of gravity appear weightless.

Wind Turbine

A device for converting wind energy into mechanical (windmill) or electrical energy.

Work

When a force acts on a moving object, that force does mechanical work. The work done is defined by the equation:
Work Done = Force x Distance
The SI unit of work is the same as that of energy - the joule.
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X



X-rays

X-rays were discovered accidentally by Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895. X-ray radiation is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum. With wavelengths ranging from about 0.001nm to about 100 nm, X-rays are much shorter than ultraviolet. They travel at the speed of light.





Z




Zenith

The zenith is the point in the sky directly above an observer's head. This term is often used in astronomy.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

If body A is in thermal equilibrium with body B, and B is also in thermal equilibrium with C, then A is necessarily in thermal equilibrium with C.
This is equivalent to saying that thermal equilibrium obeys a transitive mathematical relation.

Z boson

A carrier particle of weak interactions. It is involved in all weak processes that do not change flavor.
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