----------------------------------------

----------------------------------------

__________________
The future belongs to those who believe in the beauty of their dreams.
.::Be Different::.
M$. L!|y

__________________
~It is possible to fail in many ways...while to succeed is possible only in one way.~

The Size of All Planets Are Relative

__________________
No signature...

Sharing after a long time in this very dear thread and here's something different

__________________
When you have to shoot, shoot. Don't talk. ~ The Good, The Bad, and the Ugly

CSS Syllabus Geography:

PAPER - I (Marks- 100)

PHYSICAL AND GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

1. Elements of Weather and Climate
Insolation and Atmospheric Temperature. Global Radiation and Heat Balance. Atmospheric Pressure and Winds. Humidity and Precipitation. Air Masses. Fronts and Atmospheric Disturbances. Classification of Climate and Climatic Regions.

Air Masses and Fronts

Humidity

__________________
__________________________________
nahin nigah main manzil to justaju hi sahi
nahin wisaal mayassar to arzu hi sahi

CSS Syllabus: 2. Landforms
Major landforms, Rocks : origin, formation and classification. Internal Structure of the Earth. Earth quakes and Volcancity. Weathering. Mass Wasting. Erosion and Deposition. Cycle of Erosion. Landforms produced by Underground and Ground Water. Wind and Glaciers.

Landforms

Definition: Landforms are defined as the natural physical features found on the surface of the earth. Landforms are created as a result of the various forces of nature such as wind, water and ice and also by the movement of the earth’s tectonic plates. For example, due to these actions, the soil gets eroded and deposited somewhere far from the site of erosion, thus leads to the formation of different landforms. Some landforms are created in a matter of few hours; others take millions of years to appear. A group of landforms in a particular area is called its landscape.

Types and Characteristic Features of Landforms

There are many types of landforms on the earth’s surface. Each landform is characterized by its slope, elevation, soil and rock type, stratification and orientation. Following is the list of some of the common types of landforms and their characteristics:

Mountains: Mountains are areas, which are higher than the surrounding areas and are characterized by a peak, e.g. The Himalayas. Surprisingly, they are more frequently present in the oceans than in land. A mountain is steeper than a hill. Mountains are formed due the tectonic movement such as an earthquake or a volcanic eruption. A few are resulted due to erosion of the surrounding areas by the action of wind, water or ice.

Plateaus: Plateaus are large highland flat areas separated from the surrounding areas by a steep slope, e.g. The Tibetan plateau. Plateaus are formed due to various actions such as collision of the earth’s tectonic plates, uplift of the earth’s crust by the action of magma; some are resulted due to the lava flow from the volcanic eruption.

Islands: Islands are areas that are completely surrounded by water, e.g. The Hawaiian Islands. Islands are formed either as a result of the volcanic eruption or due the presence of hot spots on the lithosphere.

Plains: Plains are flat areas or low relief areas on the earth’s surface, e.g. prairies, steppes. Plains are formed due to the sedimentation of the eroded soil from the hills and mountains or due to the flowing lava deposited by the agents of wind, water and ice.

Valleys: Valleys are flat areas of land between the hills or mountains, e.g. The California Central Valley. Mostly they are formed by the actions of rivers and glaciers. Depending upon the shape, valley forms are classified as U-shaped or V-shaped valley. V-shaped valleys are formed by flowing water or rivers, whereas U-shaped valleys are formed by glaciers.

Deserts: Deserts are very dry lands with little or no rainfall, for example, The Sahara desert. Mostly deserts are formed in rainshadow areas, which are leeward of a mountain range with respect to the wind direction. Thus, the mountains block the passage of wind resulting in little or sometimes no rain.

Loess: Loess are deposits of silt and with a little amount of sand and clay. Many a times wind action is responsible for formation of loess; however sometimes glacial activity can also form loess.

Rivers: Rivers are natural flowing stream of freshwater, e.g. The Nile. They mostly flow towards lakes or oceans but sometimes they dried up without reaching another water body. River water is collected from the surface water runoffs, groundwater water recharge and sometimes from the water reservoirs such as glaciers. Landforms definitely play an important role in the formation of rivers.

Oceans: Oceans are the biggest form of water and are saline, such as The Pacific Ocean. Oceans of the world cover around 71% of the earth’s surface and control the weather and climate of the earth’s surface. Oceans are originated due the Continental Drift, i.e. the movement of the earth’s tectonic plates.

Glaciers: Glaciers are huge slow moving body of ice. Glaciers are formed due to the compaction of snow layers and moves with respect to gravity and pressure. Mainly there are two types of glaciers - Alpine glaciers, which are formed in high mountains and Continental glaciers, which are formed in cold Polar Regions.

Basic types of landforms: 4 Types:

Other types:

============================================

Rocks: Classification:

Rock Cycle

__________________
__________________________________
nahin nigah main manzil to justaju hi sahi
nahin wisaal mayassar to arzu hi sahi

Paper I

Types of Erosion
These Erosion Processes Shape the Landscape

Erosion is a geological process that shapes the landscape of the Earth, both on the surface and under water. It involves the breakdown of rock through either the individual or combined effects of wind, precipitation, glacial movement and gravitational forces.

Types of Erosion

There are four main types forces that cause the erosion of solid rock and formation of sediments:

1. Water - as running water or wave action
2. Wind - occurs in two forms: deflation and abrasion
3. Glaciers - by scraping rock and transporting all sizes of sediment thousands of miles
4. Gravity - as a constant force on unstable hills and cliffs

Water

Powerful currents of moving water can be very destructive forces of nature. There are two ways in which water can act as a transport of sediment: by running water, such as rivers and streams, or by waves. Included with erosion by running water is erosion due to heavy rainfall. Heavy rainfall can cause sediment to be dislodged due to the impact of continuous high-velocity raindrops or it can cause flooding, which causes erosion in the same manner as rivers and streams, also known as sheet erosion. Vegetation is very important for slowing down erosion due to heavy rainfall and flooding. The leaves and branches of trees slow down falling raindrops before they impact the surface. Moreover, a well-developed network of tree, bush and grass roots holds soil in place.

Rivers and streams erode and transport sediment by picking up particles along the channel or at the bottom of the channel. The ability for streams to transport sediment depends on the turbulence and velocity of the water. The higher the velocity of the water, the more turbulence, and therefore the more effective the water is able to carry particles downstream. The velocity of the water is generally greater as the depth increases. Therefore, larger particles are transported by water at depth whereas water at the surface transports fine particles. This is evident in stream and river bed deposits, where coarser-grained material is found at the bottom of the stream and finer-grained material is found along the edges.

Wind

Like water, erosion due to wind processes is dependent on the rate of speed the wind is blowing or for how long a rock formation has been subject to wind. Also like water, wind erodes in two ways: by a process called deflation and by another process called abrasion. Deflation comes from the Latin word meaning “to blow away”. As the name implies, deflation occurs when the flow of air is strong enough to pick up particles and blow them elsewhere. Areas of significant deflation are deserts and beaches, where little to no vegetation is present to protect sediments from the forces of wind. Abrasion occurs when wind-driven sediments strike and chip away at rock. The rock being abraded begins to take on distinctive forms and can even be slightly polished.

Glaciers

Glaciers are some of the most powerful transporters of sediment. They do not discriminate between the sizes of particles being transported and can transport any size particle thousands of kilometers. There are multiple ways in which glaciers erode rock surfaces and formations. In one way, glaciers act like huge bulldozers, picking up loose sediment – from silt and sand to huge boulders – and pushing it along to be deposited elsewhere. Another way is like a file, literally scratching and scraping away at rock formations, leaving marks called striations in its path. This occurs when the sediment at the base of the glacier is scraped against bedrock. In the case of huge boulders, the scraping can be much more dramatic and large chunks of rock can be ripped away.

Gravity

Landslides are a dramatic consequence of erosion due to gravitational forces. Heavy rainfall can contribute to the problem, but it is the weight of the rock and the angle of its slope that is the main reason for failures in stability. The constant pull of gravity makes all hill slopes and mountain faces susceptible to landslides, but areas where the material is unconsolidated are the most hazardous.

Even animal activity can cause erosion – called bioerosion – as soil and sand is displaced from this activity. The effects of erosion depend on the kind of erosion occurring, the rate at which it occurs and the period of time over which it has occurred.

__________________
__________________________________
nahin nigah main manzil to justaju hi sahi
nahin wisaal mayassar to arzu hi sahi

Mass wasting and gravity

Mass wasting, the downhill movement of soil and rock under the influence of gravity, encompasses a variety of physical processes by which mountain ranges are eroded. These processes include

* Creep - slow, nearly continuous downslope movement that is induced by either freeze/thaw cycles or wet/dry cycles.
* Slides - sudden downhill movement of masses of rock or sediment.
* Debris flows- dense, fluid mixtures of rock, sand, mud, and water

There are other categories of mass wasting processes such as slumps, rock flows, rockfalls, block glides (etc...) that can be grouped together or separately with creep, slides, and debris flows depending on which characteristics that share in common. All of these processes share one thing in common, namely, that they are caused by the incessant downward pull of gravity , which moves loose slope material downwards.

Gravity-driven mass wasting processes are a subset of larger set of processes that transport weathered and unweathered earth materials. These processes are classified as erosional processes, which include all processes that remove and transport weathered or unweathered soil and rocks. Erosional processes include

* Wind
* Running water
* Waves
* Glaciers
* Water flowing underground
* Gravity-driven processes (mass-wasting)

Mass-wasting processes






(Landslide)

Mass-wasting processes such as creep, landslides, and debris flows are distinguished from each other in part by whether they occur rapidly or slowly. Landslides are capable of transporting massive amounts of rock and soil downslope for miles in very short periods (e.g. minutes). Creep can also transport much material, but at rates of only millimeters per year. Both are important erosional processes. Rapid mass wasting events such as massive landslides or debris flows are typically triggered by events that destabilize material that resides on steep slopes. Such events include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, rain or melting snow, and poorly planned landscape alterations by humans (e.g. road cuts or developments that require the removal of material at the bases of slopes).

__________________
__________________________________
nahin nigah main manzil to justaju hi sahi
nahin wisaal mayassar to arzu hi sahi

CSS Syllabus Geography Paper I:

Study of Maps
Types of maps: Topographical Maps, Aerial Photographs. Weather Maps. Map Projections: classification and choice of projections. Merits and Demerits of Cylindrical. Conical and Zenithal Projections. Diagrams. graphs and Distribution Maps based on Statistical Data.

Map Skills

Map and Globe Terms

Types of Maps and Map Projections

All About Map Projections + AP Human Geography

What is map projection?http://www.kartografie.nl/geometrics...tions/body.htm

__________________
__________________________________
nahin nigah main manzil to justaju hi sahi
nahin wisaal mayassar to arzu hi sahi