The 1956 Constitution

The Constitution of 1956 was passed after long deliberations. It replaced the Interim Constitution. It has 234 Articles and 6 Schedules. It declared that the name of the country would be the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
There was clear impact of the Government of India Act, 1935 and the Interim Constitution.

Features
1: Parliamentary System

Executive Authority vested in the President who exercised it on the advice of the Prime Minister except in the matters he had discretion.
President had ceremonial functions and exercised limited powers.
The President would be of 45 years of age, Muslim and qualified to be a member of National Assembly.
He was to be elected by National Assembly (NA) and Provincial Assemblies.

Prime Minister

PM would be appointed by President. President could not remove him unless he was sure that PM did not enjoythe support of majority in the National Assembly. The President would be its sole judge. He could ask PM to show his support. Cabinet was collectively responsible to NA. PM was the head of government assisted by cabinet.

One House Parliament:

National Assembly was the only house of the parliament having a membership of 300 plus10 women seats. Principle of parity was observed for representation.
Method of direct elections was adopted for general seats. All legislative powers were rested with NA.
President could return, reject or sign the bills.
Regarding monetary bills of ordinary expenditure NA had all powers but they could not vote on Consolidated Fund List. Salaries of President, judges, federal service commission, etc. were to be paid through Consolidated Fund.
NA could control the Executive.

2: Federal System

The constitution provided three lists: Federal, Provincial and Concurrent. There were two Provinces in the federation of Pakistan.

3: Provincial Structure:

At the provincial level there was elected Assembly. The Parliamentary System under the nominal headship of Governor. The real powers were given to Chief Ministers and his cabinet. Centre had some overriding powers and some Emergency powers too. They were Clause 191: Security or economic life was under threat for external or internal reasons. Clause 193: Constitutional crisis in provinces.



4: Independent Judiciary

At centre level the highest court was Supreme Court, then High Courts in provinces and subordinate courts were established.

Higher Courts have the power of Interpretation of the constitution. They could hear the disputes between governments. They were guardians of the Legal rights of the citizens.

5: Fundamental Rights

Civil and Political Rights were given to the people of Pakistan but they could be suspended in case of emergency.

6: Directive Principles of State Policy

These principles provided guidelines for policy making.
Principles of Objectives Resolution were included as preamble. The other principles included surety about Islamic practices, Welfare of people, non-discrimination, and fulfillment of basic needs, etc.

7: Islamic Character

• The name of the country was the Islamic Republic, Objectives Resolution was the
Preamble.
• Other Islamic clauses were part of Directive Principles.
• No law can be made to violate Islamic principles and teachings.
• Existing laws would be brought in conformity with Islamic teachings.
• A Commission was to be appointed to examine the laws for bringing them in conformity.
• Whether a Law is Islamic or not, NA had to decide. The matter could be taken up with the
Judiciary.
• Islam was not declared state religion.
• Islamic heritage and roots are combined with modern notions of governance and a moderate political system was adopted.

Working of the Constitution

No elections were held after the enforcement of elections. It was finally abrogated on October 7, 1958.
It worked from March 23, 1956 to October 7, 1958.

The 1962 Constitution

1: Background

Military took over on 7 October 1958 and consequently Ayub Khan became Chief Martial Law Administrator. One major task was to frame a new Constitution. The administration was critical of Parliamentary system because it caused instability in the past. They sought stability of the nation in the gradual development of democracy.

2: Constitution Making
The government introduced Basic Democracies in October 1959. Under this system Forty Thousand basic democrats (local councilors) were to be elected in each province. They have to perform functions as local government and their role in developmental work. They also acted as an electoral college for the election of president and the national assembly.
Elections for the Basic Democracies (BD) were held in December 1959 and January 1960. Then
Presidential referendum was held by the elected BD members on February 17, 1960.
A Constitutional Commission was established in February 1960 under the chairmanship of
Justice Shahabuddin, former Chief Justice. The tasks assigned to the Commission were:

• To examine the causes of failure of Parliamentary system.
• Recommend a new system keeping in view the

(a) genius of people
(b) standard of education
(c) internal conditions of the country
(d) need of development

Commission presented its report in May 1961 after then two committees reviewed it. Under the report of these committees the new Constitution was drafted.
Ayub announced the Constitution on March 1, 1962. Elections to the National Assembly (NA)
and Provincial Assemblies (PAs) were held in April and May 1962 respectively.
The new Constitution was enforced on June 8, 1962. Martial Law was withdrawn. The new
Constitution was consisted of 250 articles, 5 schedules.

3: Salient Features of the Constitution

3.1. Title of the State
Republic and Islamic Republic

3.2. Presidential System
A Powerful President who was responsible for administration and affairs of the state. He should be a Muslim, at least 40 years of age, should be qualified to be a member of NA. He would be elected through indirect elections for a period of five years.
If he has held office for more than 8 years, he could seek reelection with the approval of the NA
and the PAs.
National Assembly was given the power to impeach the president, however it was difficult to achieve.
President could dissolve the NA but in that case he must seek re-election.

3.3. Powers of the President:

President was the Focal point of all the Executive, Legislative and Judicial powers. Cabinet was responsible to him. All key appointments were to be made by President. He could issue Ordinances. He could also declare State of Emergency in the country.

3.4. National Assembly (NA)
NA was consisted of one house on the basis of principle of parity between two wings of the country. There were 150 seats plus 6 seats were reserved for women. All were elected indirectly. For the membership minimum age limit was 25 years.

3.5. Legislative Powers:
NA had all the powers of law making but law was to be finally ratified by the president. President could sign, reject or return the bill.

3.6. Financial Powers
Financial Powers of NA were limited. Only new expenditure could be voted. NA could not reject
Consolidate Fund List and Recurring Expenditure.

3.7. Federalism
There were two provinces of the federation: East Pakistan and West Pakistan. Only one list of subjects, i.e. the Central list was given in the constitution.

3.8. Provincial Governments
Governors were head of the provinces and govern the province with his cabinet. Provincial governments were directly under the control of President.
There was a strong center with a Powerful President. He had enough powers to manage provincial affairs. In case of emergency powers Central government could take direct control of the province.

3.9. Principles of Policy

• National solidarity would be observed.
• Interests of backward people would be looked after.
• Opportunities for participation in national life.
• Education and well being of people.
• Islam would be implemented in day to day life.

3.10. Fundamental Rights
Fundamental Rights were provided in the constitution.

3.11. Political Parties
Originally Political Parties were not allowed. Political Parties Act was introduced in 1962.

3.12. Islamic Provisions
Objectives Resolution was the Preamble of the Constitution. Other Islamic provisions were a part of Principles of Policy and not the constitution.

3.13. Advisory Council for Islamic Ideology
An Advisory Council for Islamic Ideology was made in the constitution having 5-12 members. It was a recommendatory body.

3.14. Islamic Research Institute
It was designed for the Research and instructions in Islam for assisting the reconstruction of
Muslim society on truly Islamic lines.

3.15. Working of the Constitution
Constitution remained enforced from June 8, 1962 to March 25, 1969

The 1973 Constitution

1. Background
2. Constitution Making
3. Features

1. Background
Abrogation of the 1962 Constitution on March 25, 1969 led to second martial law in the country. Yahya Khan handed over power to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on December 20, 1971 after the first general elections. But martial law continued and there was no constitution.
National Assembly approved an Interim Constitution, which was enforced on April 21, 1972.

2: Constitution Making
Constitutional Committee comprising National Assembly (NA) members from all parties was set up in April 1972. Law Minister was the Chairman of this Committee.
All parties agreed on the future political system in October 1972. The Committee reported on December 31, 1972. After long deliberations and compromises final draft was approved unanimously on April 10, 1973. The new Constitution was enforced on August 14, 1973.
The Constitution functioned since then with two gaps. It remained operational during following periods:

1973-77: Operational
1977-1985: Suspended
1985-1999: Operational after changes
1999-2002 : Suspended
2002 onwards Operational after changes

3: Features of the Constitution
3.1. Parliamentary System
It was a parliamentary constitution having powerful Prime Minister (PM) as head of government with a very weak President.
President must act on the advice of PM. All his orders were to be countersigned by PM. Prime Minister to be elected by the NA.
PM exercised all executive authority. PM was answerable to the NA.
In 1985, powers of the President were increased. He enjoyed some discretion in appointments of PM. He had power to dissolve the NA. He had the powers of appointment of caretaker PM. He gives his assent to bills passed by the parliament or returns these.

3.2. President:
Must be at least 45 years of age, Muslim, qualified to become member of the NA. He is elected by the Parliament and the Provincial Assemblies for 5 years.

3.3. Parliament with two houses:

• Upper House called Senate. In this house equal representation is given to Provinces. Seats are reserved for the tribal areas, women and technocrats. Its original strength was 63, which was later raised to 87 and then 100.
Senate is elected indirectly. It’s a permanent House as half of its members are elected after three years.
• Lower House: National Assembly is elected on population basis. Its Original strength was 210 but now it is 342. NA is elected for five years.
• Senate: Indirect elections
• National Assembly: Direct elections
• Voting age for the franchise is lowered from 21 to 18.
• Parliament under 1973 constitution is a powerful legislative body. It enjoys all legislative powers. It has control of the executive through questions, resolutions, parliamentary committees etc.
• National Assembly is more powerful than the Senate. Budget is presented before NA. Cabinet is answerable to National Assembly.

3.4. Federal System
Federation of Pakistan has four provinces and federally administered areas.
Two lists are given in the constitution: Federal list and Concurrent list. Residuary powers belong to provinces.

3.5. Provincial Structure:
Provincial Governors are appointed by the President on the advice of the PM. Elected Chief
Minister exercises executive powers. Parliamentary system is there in the provinces. Size of the provincial assemblies varies:

In 2002:

Punjab 371
Sindh 168
NWFP 124
Balochistan 65

Enough provincial autonomy is guaranteed. Tradition of strong centre continues.
Centre has emergency powers. Governor’s rule can be imposed if the government cannot function in the provinces.
Provinces are dependent on centre for Finances.

3.6. Principles of Policy:

a. Islamic provisions are provided in Principles of Policy. Foreign policy principles are also given under this heading.

3.7. Fundamental Rights:

b. Fundamental Rights are secured in the constitution and are implemented through the highest court.

3.8. Islamic Provisions:

c. Title of the state is Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
d. The objectives resolution was the Preamble in the initial constitution but through article 2-A of 8th amendment it was inserted in the constitution in 1985.

e. Islam was declared the State Religion of Pakistan.
f. Definition of Muslim was included by an amendment.
g. Principles of Policy also carry some Islamic clauses.
h. Council for Islamic Ideology is established under the constitution. i. Federal Shariat Court was added in 1981.

3.9. National Language:

j. Urdu is declared National Language, however English may be used for official purposes until arrangements would be made for its replacement by Urdu.

k. Provincial Assembly may prescribe measures for teaching, promotion and use of a provincial language in addition to the national language.

3.10. National Security Council:

l. National Security Council was added in 2002 in advisory capacity.

3.11. Judiciary:

m. An independent judiciary is given under the constitution. Supreme Court of Pakistan is the highest court. One High Court is established in each province and one in Azad Kashmir. A chain of lower courts is there under the high courts.

Political History

1. 1947-1971
2. 1972- to the Present

First Part:

1947-1971

1. 1947-58
2. 1958-69
3. 1969-71

1: First Eleven Years (1947-58)

Pakistan won independence under extremely difficult conditions. The next task was setting up of a new state.
There was no administrative structure. Riots, refugee’s problem and economic pressures were challenging for the new state.
Negative attitude from Indian government and war on Kashmir created problems in relations with India.
The Government of India Act 1935 was adopted as the first Interim Constitution. Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah became the first Governor General (GG) of Pakistan and Liaquat Ali Khan, the first Prime Minister (PM).

Governor Generals:

1. M. A. Jinnah August Sept. 1947-Sept. 1948
2. Kh. Nazimuddin Sept. 1948-Oct 1951
3. Ghulam Mohammad Oct. 1951-Oct. 1955
4. Iskander Mirza Oct. 1955-March 1956

President:

1. Iskander Mirza March 1956-Oct. 1958

Prime Ministers:

1. Liaquat Ali Khan August 1947-Oct 1951
2. Kh. Nazimuddin Oct. 1951-April 1953
3. Muhammad Ali Bogra (i) April 1953-Oct 1954 Oct. (ii) 1954-August 1955
4. Ch. Muhammad Ali August 1955-Sept 1956
5. H.S. Suhrawardy Sept. 1956-Oct 1957
6. I.I. Chundrigar Oct. 1957-Dec 1957
7. Firoz Khan Noon Dec. 1957-Oct. 1958

Major Issues

• Constitution-making
• Elections at the provincial level
1. Punjab, NWFP 1951
2. Sindh 1953
3. East Bengal 1954
• 1st Constituent Assembly (CA) was dissolved and 2nd CA was constituted in 1955.
• One Unit Scheme October 1955
• Economic management, Agriculture, Industrialization and Education was a question dealt in 1st Five Year Plan.
• Political Instability was there. Weak and short-lived governments shattered the whole political system.
• Decline of Political Parties created bad name for politicians.
• Instability was also there at the provincial level.

2: Second Phase (1958-69)

Martial Law remained imposed from October 1958 to June 1962. Constitutional Rule was restored on June 1962 and remained till the 2nd Martial Law on March 1969.
Ayub Khan took over as Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA) and the President. He got himself elected through referendum in 1960 and re-elected in January 1965 through presidential elections.

Important Policy Measures

Important Policy Measures taken by the Ayub government were:
Administrative Reforms which included removal of unwanted officials, some 1662 in number.
Restrictions on political activities. Political leaders were stopped from taking part in politics for 6 years on the charge of corruption and other charges under the law named EBDO.
Economic planning was done for industrial development and green Revolution. Educational Reforms
Constitution was introduced.

Downfall of Ayub Khan:

Indo-Pakistan war started and at the end of war Tashkand Pact was signed with India. People were not satisfied with this pact. They also resented the election results of 1965. Fruits of economic development were not distributed at masses level. Wealth of nation was concentrated in a few hands. This brought people to agitation and public demand resulted in resignation of the president.

3: Third Phase (1969-71)

Ayub Khan handed over power to Army Chief Yahya Khan. He imposed Martial Law and 1962
Constitution was abrogated. He took some immediate steps:

• Removal of officers 303
• Provinces Revived: March 30, 1970
• Abolition of Parity
• Legal Framework Order (LFO) as interim law issued in March 1970 which provided basic principles for:
• Constitution making
• Rules and regulations for elections
• Seats in the assemblies
• National Assembly 313 (300 plus 13 women seats) For East Pak 162 plus 7 West Pak 138 plus 6

General Elections

General Elections were held in December 1970.
Election Results were:

Awami League 160 general seats
Pakistan People’s Party 81 general seats

Transfer of power became a major problem. Failure of dialogue for transfer of Power among three top leaders led to confrontation and military action on March 25, 1971. It ultimately resulted in Civil war and alienation of East Pakistan.

India played a very negative role. It attacked on East Pakistan and India-Pakistan war started which ended with the separation of East Pakistan.

Political History (1972-2003)

1. 1972-1977
2. 1977-1985
3. 1985-1999
4. 1999-2002
5. 2002 onwards

1: 1972-1977:
Z. A. Bhutto assumed power on December 20, 1971. First he became President of Pakistan and also the first civilian Chief Marshal Law Administrator.

Major Policies
The first task was the Constitution making. In 1972 Interim Constitution was adopted and then the
Parliament of Pakistan unanimously adopted 1973 Constitution.
The major policy of Mr. Bhutto was Nationalisation. His government nationalised:

1. Emerald mines in Swat
2. Key industries like Iron & Steel, Basic metals, heavy engineering, heavy electrical, Motor Vehicles & Tractors, Heavy & Basic Chemicals, Petro- Chemicals, Cement, Gas, Oil Refinery etc.
3. Life Insurance in 1972
4. Banks in 1974
5. Schools and Colleges in 1972. New University Ordinance was issued in 1973.
6. Managing and sub-agencies were abolished.

Labour Policy
A new Labour Policy was announced in which more rights and concessions were given to the working classes.

Health Policy
Under new Health Policy cheap medicine and facilities were promised to the masses.

Administrative Reforms
Administrative Reforms were introduced to eradicate corruption in the country. Hundreds of civil servants were removed on the charge of corruption.

Problems of Reforms:
Reforms were good in outlook but as their results were not according to the expectations of the masses. Discontentment took the place of initial optimism.

1977 Elections and Agitation:
As a result of elections of 1977 PPP won the elections. But joint opposition blamed a mass rigging in the election results. They demanded fresh elections. Bhutto initially was stubborn but later showed inclination to compromise but history has taken a U-turn. As he refused to negotiate the elected majority party in 1971, now opposition refused to compromise and took the case to the streets. Urban shopkeepers, businessmen, students, women and even the intelligentsia joined hands against the government. The result was the third Martial Law and end of democracy.

2: 1977-1985:
Chief of Army Staff General Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq took over and imposed Martial Law. He suspended constitution. It was the longest military Rule in the history of Pakistan. To justify his rule Zia-ul-Haq presented his Agenda about:
• Effective Administration
• Islamisation
• Return to Democracy

Major Policies:
Zia-ul-Haq promised Elections first within 90 days, and then extended this period after the reforms. These reforms included:
Accountability of the ousted regime;
Restrictions imposed on political activities and press.

Islamisation:
In his way of Islamisation of the system he introduced many steps for forging cooperation of some Islamic groups.
He also introduced Constitutional and legal changes to emphasis on Islamic values in the society. He established:

• Shariat benches established in 1979;
• Federal Shariat Court was established in 1981;
• Introduced Islamic Punishments; Amputation of hands, Stoning to death and lashing etc;
• Interest free banking initiated in 1981 on the principle of profit & loss sharing;
• Zakat deducted on saving accounts & investments;
• Ushar was imposed on agricultural produce in 1983;
• New education Policy with Islamic character of syllabus along with Pakistan Studies and Islamiat compulsory for all the classes up to graduation.
• Islamisation of Mass media;
• Prayers break was introduced in offices, and Mohaallah Salat Committees were formed to observe the compliance of Prayer Ordinance;
• Pakistan Bat-ul-Mall was established.

Return to democracy
In order to return to democracy Zia-ul-Haq took the following measure:

1. Local Bodies elections, 1979.
2. Referendum was held to elect Zia-ul-Haq as president for next five years on December 1984.
3. Then he held elections on non-party basis on February 1985.
4. New National Assembly (NA) was formed and a Civilian government was installed.
5. Revival of the Constitution Order March 1985 with most controversial 8th Constitutional Amendment was introduced.
6. Withdrawal of martial law, Dec 30, 1985.

3: 1985-1999 Civilian Rule
Democracy was restored but no civilian government could complete its tenure of five years and became the victim of 58-2B of 8th amendment by virtue of that President can dissolve NA and dismiss the elected government.

1. Junejo March 1985-May 1988
2. Benazir Bhutto November 1988-Aug 1990
3. Nawaz Sharif October 1990-July 1993
4. Benazir Bhutto October 1993-November 1996
5. Nawaz Sharif February 1997-October 1999

Interim Prime Ministers appointed for holding fair elections were

1. Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi: August-November 1990
2. Bulkh Sher Mazari: April-May 1993
3. Dr. Moeen Qureshi: July-October 1993
4. Malik Meraj Khalid: November 1996-February 1997

Civilian government adopted policies for the welfare and betterment of the people but their effects were compromised due to several reasons:

• Problem of keeping coalitions intact;
• Weak political parties, which weakened the government;
• Greater confrontation;
• Complaints of corruption and misuse of state resources.

4: 1999-2002:
In 1999 again Military Rule was imposed against the civilian government’s attempt to concentrate power in the office of Prime Minister. Nawaz government introduced political and constitutional changes to have a complete control on all branches of the government.
Nawaz government’s attempt to remove the Army Chief, while he was out of the country and returning from his visit to Sri Lanka, proved counter productive. General Musharraf took over as the Chief Executive of the country and suspended the constitution. Martial law was not declared. No military courts were established. Political and press freedoms remained intact.

Political Priorities:
General Musharraf announced his Political Priorities:

• Rebuild national confidence and morale;
• Strengthening federation;
• Remove inter provincial disharmony;
• Restore national cohesion;
• Revival of the economy and restoration of investor’s confidence;
• Improving Law and order situation and dispensation of Justice;
• Depoliticise the state institutions and devolution of power;
• Swift and across the board accountability.

General Musharraf designed the following policies to achieve these goals:

• Accountability and return of looted wealth of the state;
• Revival of the economy through increasing Foreign exchange reserves and reducing International debt burden through rescheduling;
• Poverty Reduction and social uplift.
General Musharraf introduced New Local Bodies System, delegation of power to the District Government.

In the process of Return to Democracy he held:

1. Referendum, April 2002.
2. Introduced Legal Framework Order (LFO).
3. Held General Elections of National And Provincial Assemblies on 10th
Oct 2002.
4. Revival of the Constitution.
5. Civilian Governments formed in the provinces and the Centre.

5: Civilian Rule Established
In the new set up Musharraf is President in uniform. Mir Zafer-Ullah-Khan Jamali was the head of a coalition government. In three provinces there are governments of Muslim League (Q) and in NWFP there is the government of MMA working successfully.

Let’s hope for the gradual consolidation of democratic rule.

Geography, Land, Boundaries and Neighborhoods

1. Geography and the People
2. Boundaries
3. Neighborhoods

1: Geography and the People

Pakistan was comprised of two wings when it came into existence on August 14, 1947. East Pakistan separated in 1971. Post-1971 or present day Pakistan is located in the Northwestern part of South Asian Sub-continent.

It has maintained its distinctiveness in the Sub-continent. Indus Valley Civilization is as old as 2500-1600 BC. The archeological heritage of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are clear evidence of this fact. Arians first came to this land followed by Islam and Muslims from Central Asia and Afghanistan. Muslim rule continued about one thousand years. Then the downfall of Muslim empire paved the way for British Rule, which ended with the formation of two independent states of India and Pakistan.

Location:
Pakistan is located between 24_37 degrees North latitude 61_75 degrees East longitude.

Territory:
Its area is 796,095 sq Kilometers.
__________________Territory_____percentage
________________(in thousand)_____%
Balochistan _________347.2_______43.61
Punjab______________205.3_______25.81
Sindh_______________140.9_______17.71
NWFP________________74.6_______9.4
FATA________________27.2_______ 3.4
Islamabad_____________0.9________0.1

Diversity in the nature of territory:
• North and Northwest: It includes Mountains of Himalayan and trans-Himalayan Ranges, Korakoram & Pamirs, which includes some of highest peaks like K2, Nanga Parbat etc.
• West: Baluchistan Plateau is about 1000 feet in elevation with dry mountains crossing it from northeast to the southwest. Here very little rainfall occurs.
• Indus Plains: Main agricultural region in the middle of the Indus valley.
• The Potohar Plateau is there in the East of upper Indus plains.
• In South East of Indus Plains there is Deserts Thal, Cholistan and Thar.

Climate:
Climate of Pakistan is diverse.
North, Northwestern Mountains are extremely cold in winter but mild in summer. The Indus Plains are extremely hot in summer but cold and dry in winter.Coastal regions are having temperate climate. There are some variations within each region.

Four Seasons:

Summer: May to September
Winter: November to February
Spring: March-April
Autumn: September-October
Rain: It varies from region to region. The main rainy season is the summer i.e. Monsoon.

Population:
Pakistan is having a large population. The growth rate recorded over 3 percent in the 1970s to early 1990s. Now declined due to a number of measures by the government but still it is higher as compare to the other countries of the region. Census is taken after every ten years.

--------1951, 1961, 1972, 1981, 1998
-----------------------------------------------
Year Population----Annual Growth
-------In Million-----Percent
1951 -----36.2 --------
1961 -----46.2 ----2.80
1972 -----65.3 ----3.10
1981 -----84.3 ----3.06
1998 -----130.6 ----2.61
*In 2006, the population is estimated to be over 160 million.

Important Features of the Population:

• More than 50 Percent population is under the age of 21. A large part of this population is dependent.
• Add to this people over 65 years.
• About 30 percent population lives in urban areas.
• Why migrations to urban areas: Education, jobs, facilities etc.
• Impact of urbanization: Poor civic conditions, education, health, housing, town planning etc.
• Provincial population. Punjab 56-57 percent Sind 23 percent NWFP 14 percent Baluchistan 5.3 percent
• Low literacy rate: Official literacy rate is 46 percent but functional literacy rate is even lower.
• Women literacy rate is much lower. In certain areas of Baluchistan women literacy is nominal to non-existent.
• Why population figures are important. For Planning and development, Socio-economic development and poverty alleviation etc.
• Social development indicators are poor in Pakistan. No ideal figure for population can be named. It depends upon the resources. High population is asset as well as a liability because we cannot feed them.
• Efforts to manage population are being done by the Government as well as by non-governmental organizations in the field of health care, family planning and education.

2: Boundaries:
Pakistan shares boundaries with four countries.

• China in the northeast: About 600 km long border in the Northern Areas. Silk Route is a major link for trade and traveling.
• Afghanistan: North and Northwest about 1200 miles. Durand Line was drawn on
November 1893 as a border between the two neighbors.
• Iran in the West share about 590 miles border from Koh-i-Malik Siah to Gawadar.
• India in the East having a border about 1400 miles which was established in August
1947.
• We also face India on the LOC in Kashmir, the most troubled frontier having hardly any natural barriers, highly volatile and porous.
• South: Arabian Sea, Coastline 450 miles. Stretches from the Rann of Kutch Indian border to the Iranian border in the West.

3: Neighborhoods:

Pakistan is located in strategically important region. It is the center of global interests. For all the big powers like China and Russia it is important. U.S maintains interests to keep an eye on both China and Russia.
It is on the gateway of Central Asian Muslim States through Afghanistan. On the other side of it is the outer region of the Gulf region having rich oil resources and economic wealth. Pakistan has close brotherly ties with these states. Now the pipelines of oil and gas are planning to be passed through Pakistan. It will be a new start of economic cooperation in the region.

Natural Resources, Agriculture

1: Natural Resources

• Mineral Resources
• Rivers and Canals
• Forests
• Animals

2: Agriculture

1: Natural Resources:
The resources endowed by the nature to the country and the people are called National Resources, e.g., Mineral resources, rivers, forests and animals. Agricultural lands hold key to development and prosperity of a country.
The rate of development and prosperity of a country depends on efforts to make use of it. Effective management and human efforts are needed to avail them. Modern technology is also required to make use of it.

Mineral Resources:
Pakistan is blessed with considerable mineral resources. Some of them are explored but much remains to be done for the search for more. Some important resources are:

• Iron Ore is used for industry, especially steel industry. It is found in limited quantity and low quality. Most of the required Iron ore is imported from abroad. Its deposits are found in Chitral, Chaghai, Kohat, Kurram Agency, Mardan, Hazara, Mianwali (Kalabagh) and DG Khan.
• Chromite: is used in preparing other metals, leather tanning, making of steel products, armament and stainless steel. The deposits of Chromite are found in Zoab (Muslim Bagh), Chaghai, Malakand, Mahmand, Waziristan, Fort Sandaman etc.
• Gypsum is used for plaster of Paris, Paints and Cement. It is found in Jhelum, Mianwali, DG Khan, Kohat and Loralai.
• Sulphur is used by chemical industry. Its deposits are found in Kalat, Khairpur, Mardan, and Jacobabad etc.
• Coal is used in power generation. It is basically used as fuel. It is not found in good quantity and quality. It is mostly found in Sindh (Thatta, Tharparkar, Manara) Balochistan (Deegari, Sharig, Soer, Khost, Maach, Hernai), Punjab (Makarwal, Dandot), NWFP (Cherat and Noshera).
• Oil: It is a major source of energy. It is mostly imported from Iran and Gulf states. Now some valuable reserves are found in Jhelum, Mianwali, Attock, Balkasar, Mial, Chakwal, and Dhodak.
• Gas: it is itself a source of energy and fuel, and also used as a source of power generation. It is found in Sui, Mari, Uch, Khairpur, Jacobabad etc. Now some new discoveries are also found.
• Uranium: It is the basic element for atomic power, indispensable for the defence. Its deposits are in DG Khan, Hazara and Kohat.

Rivers:

The river system of Pakistan is consisted of Indus and other associated rivers. We have a well- defined Canal system. The most important one is the Indus Basin project.
What we require is the proper management of water, its conservation, effective use, storage, dams and flood control. Water is dangerous if it is too much, it become a problem if it is too little. It is used for Agriculture where it is the backbone of agro-economy. It is also a cheapest source of hydroelectric Power generation.

Forests:

Normally 25 percent area of a country should be covered with forest. But in Pakistan it is only 4 to 5 percent.
Some areas are not suitable for plantation like deserts and dry mountains. It is because of shortage of water and rainfall. Deforestation is also due to unplanned cutting of trees.

Advantages:

Forests have many advantages. They are helpful in improvement of weather. Protect against windstorms, help in slow melting of snow to stop floods. They add greenery, beauty and fresh air to the environment. Plants are source of food, medicine, timber, chemicals and fertilizers. They are the homes of animals, birds and insects. They are also used as fuel.

Animals:

Animals provide milk, meat, hide and skins, wool etc. They are also used for agriculture and transportation. They are a source of foreign exchange.
Their proper breeding requires planning and care. Animal husbandry and colleges of research are established to breed and cure useful species of animals. Department of Live Stock also provides Support System for raising animals both privately and through Government Projects. Government farms and military farms are also working for that purpose.

Fisheries:

It is also a source of food and income. Department of fisheries also encourage private farmers to invest in this field and add to personal and national wealth.

2: Agriculture
Pakistan is an agricultural country. More than 70 percent of its population lives in rural areas. Over 50 percent are directly engaged in farming or agro-based activities.

• Share of agriculture to GDP is 26 percent.
• In Punjab and Sindh plains are very large. There are irrigated farmlands.
• Two major crops are yielded in a year

(a) RABI: Sown in October-November and produce obtained in April-May. Important produces are Wheat, Gram, Oil seeds.
(b) KHARIF: Sown in May-June and produce is obtained in October-November.

Important crops are Rice, Sugar Cane, Cotton etc.
• Main crops: Wheat, Rice, Cotton, Sugar Cane, Gram, Maize, Mustard, Tobacco, Oil seeds, Fruits and vegetables.
• Land Reforms are introduced from time to time by different governments: in
1959, 1972, and 1977. The aim was to reduce land holding and to strengthen the position of tenants. It was done for improving yield per acre and poverty alleviation in agriculture field.
Problems in Agriculture:
There are number of problems in our agriculture, for instance:

1. Outdated modes of cultivation, which cause low per acre yield.
2. Water Logging and Salinity.
Attention is being given to these since mid 1960.
3. Crop diseases are big problem. Technical support is being provided by Department of Agricultural. It helped to overcome the problem. Our inputs have problem of quality, which cause low prices in market. Other handicaps are low quality seeds, costly fertilizers, non-availability of electricity or oil for tube well etc.
4. Water related problem, sometimes it is too little, but sometimes it is too much. Cleaning of Canals is also necessary to provide water at the end of canal.
5. Credit facilities are also problematic.
6. Access to market is difficult.
7. Availability of reasonable price should be ensured for the welfare of the farmers and high yield of crop.

Agriculture and Development Plans:

• Research is done for the development of high yield seeds giving better output. Information and guidance is being provided to the common farmer to enjoy the fruits of the advance research in the field of agriculture. University education is developed in various parts of Pakistan especially in Faisalabad and Jamshoro. Emphasis is laid on modern technology in practical field.
• Communication and transportation facilities are increased.
• Government ensures the payment to the farmers for their produce immediately.

Industrial Development

1. Importance
2. Historical Overview
3. Major Industries
4. Future Directions

1. Importance
Industrialization is the key to economic development and overall prosperity. Without it no economy can grow. It is the backbone of a strong and stable economy. It is the basis of modernization and development of the state.
Industrialization helps the international standing of a state. Industry and technology go together. It enhances trade and save foreign exchange. Industrialization brings self-reliance for a nation.
It is also important for agriculture. Agriculture provides raw materials and so input for industry and output is the finished goods.
Industrialization improves the quality of life, help in Poverty reduction, and provide employment facilities.
Industrialization has close relevance with the defence and security of the country.

2: Historical Overview:
In 1947 Pakistan inherited very small industrial infrastructure. Only about 4 percent of India’s industry was there in areas of Pakistan. It was insufficient to meet the needs of the day-to-day life. Initially sugar mills, biscuit factories, cigarettes factories, oil mill, cement units, match factory, steel rolling, and glass work factories were set up.
Priorities set out in the early years:

1. Industry would be based on indigenous raw materials.
2. Consumer goods should be manufactured to meet the immediate needs of the people.
3. Private initiative to be encouraged.
4. The state to be involved in the process through: facilitation and help, financial help, tax incentives, protective tariffs etc. It also played direct role to set up industry.
5. Training and research facilities would be provided.
6. Industrial Development Board was formed in 1948. All Five Years Plans from 1955, 1960, 1965-70 paid greater emphasis on private sector and rapid industrialization. It added to aggregate economic growth.

Institutional Arrangements:

• Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation (PIDC) was established under a law in 1950. It encouraged the setting up of industry that was less attractive for the private sector. Initially 15 industries were identified.
• Industrial Development Bank of Pakistan (IDBP) was set up in 1961. It provided loan facilities for industrial projects at concessional rates to middle and small investors.
• PICIC: Pak Industrial Credit & Investment Corporation was established to give loans and credit facilities, including foreign exchange facility, for setting up industry. It also launched investment schemes.
• Investment Promotion Bureau, 1959 was formed for the promotion of domestic and foreign investment and to provide advice and guidance to investors and provision of necessary help to them.
• Other institutions like ICP, NDFC, NIT were established.
• External financial and technical support was provided both bilateral and multilateral by World Bank, IMF, and Colombo Plan etc.

Nationalisation of the Seventies:
New democratic government of PPP after assuming power adopted the policy of nationalisation. Ten basic industries were nationalised. Later some others were also taken over to have a greater state role. Initial euphoria ended and industrial output suffered. It also caused flight of capital from the country

Since the early 1990s:
The policy of the governments in 1990s changed. Since 1990s all the governments including that of PPP followed the policy of denationalisation and privatisation. They are promoting free economy, foreign investment, non-governmental initiatives, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and investment from Pakistanis settled outside the country.

3: Major Industries:

• Textiles: It is major industry based on agriculture, heavy textile industry caters to domestic and external market. Major Centres are Faisalabad, Multan, Lahore and Karachi. Woollen Cloth is manufactured in Karachi, Lawrencepur, Harnai, Quaidabad, Multan and Bannu.
• Sugar: Pakistan has made tremendous progress in this industry. It is a food item; agro based industry, located in Sindh, Punjab and Sindh.
• Cement: This industry has gone through major expansion. Over 20 factories are established in the pubic and private sectors which cater to Pakistani needs. Still it is imported in limited quantity. Most of the sites are in Dandot, Daud Khel, Wah, Rori and Karachi.
• Vegetable Ghee: Cooking oil is a major food item. There is much expansion over the years both in private and public sectors. Now we are self sufficient, although some raw material for making cooking oil is imported. About 60 units are in Sindh, Punjab and NWFP.
• Iron and Steel: Steel Mill near Karachi was set up with the help of the former Soviet Union. The major problem was that of raw material. The iron ore found in Pakistan is very poor in quality. Steel rolling units and iron related factories exist in different parts of Pakistan.
• Paper: Major paper industry was in East Pakistan, which was lost in 1971. We had to face shortage of locally made paper after 1971. Now this industry is located in Noshera, Charsada, Gujranwala, Lahore, and Gharo. Some quality paper has to be imported.
• Machine, tools: Heavy Mechanical Complex (HMC) Texla serve this purpose. HMC was set up with Chinese cooperation.
• Machinery, industrial equipment, engineering goods, engines, machinery for sugar, cement, and fertilizer industry is prepared here.
• Defence Industry: Wah Ordnance Complex is established for weapons and armaments. HMC is making Tank Rebuild Factory. Kamara Aircraft Rebuild factory overhaul F-6 and Mirage. It is also manufacturing Maashak, K-8.
• Other Important Industry: Fertilizer, Tobacco and cigarettes, Oil Refineries, Cars and Tractors production, Shipbuilding: Karachi Shipyard, Ship breaking.
• Cottage Industry: Industries established on small scale, involving a household or small number of people, use of limited resources, having less investment are called small or cottage industries e. g., Carpets, sports goods, toys, power or handlooms, handicraft etc.

4: Future Directions:
There is no escape from industrialization. It is a must for prosperity and development.
We are having Mixed economy with an emphasis on private initiative. Privatisation and Foreign investment need appropriate conditions: political and economic stability, infrastructure, less bottle necks, corruption issue, low interest loans and state support and above all security of investment

Education in Pakistan

Major Areas Covered:

1. Importance
2. Educational Issues
3. Kinds of Education

1: Importance of Education:
Education is a key to development for individual, society and state. It shapes natural qualities and talents of the individuals. It has positive relevance to family and society. It also confers citizens’ confidence to deal with environment, a sense of purpose. Education provides a goal orientation and is helpful to others by educating them.
Education provides entitlement to job and professions. It gives effective tanning to the citizens about their rights and duties. It plays a more constructive role in character building of the person and in turn society as a whole.
Education should be integrated to nation building and should be able to transmit the primary values. Education should be responsible for the formation of attitude.
It should transmit socialization among individuals.
Education system is designed according to the ideology of the state and its identity. Education is the indicator of socio-economic development. For the real progress proper educational facilities should be provided. Literacy rate should be enhanced. Trained and qualified human power can make a nation success. Only such educated people can better be equipped to deal with changing situations and challenges of the time. Education provides better understanding of international environment that affects all of us. Islam asks Muslims to get education. Other religions also value education.

2: Educational Issues:
From historical perspective Pakistan has made commendable efforts for spreading education since independence. Funding, facilities and free primary education was introduced to enhance student enrolment. Following steps were taken for uplift of education:

• It made integral to development planning in all Five Year Plans and Yearly Plans.
• Education Commission was established and new Education policies were introduced.
• Critical evaluation points out serious issues requiring immediate attention for enabling education to achieve its goals.

Problem of Resources:
Resource allocation for education is far from satisfactory. It is much less than what a large number of countries spend on education, especially those having developed after World War II. Most of these allocations go to salaries and administration.
Fewer amounts are given for infrastructure, facilities of research and development.

Low Literacy:
In Pakistan literacy rate is 46 per cent. While meaningful literacy is far less. Female literacy is lower. In rural areas literacy is much low.

Enrolment and Retention:
All Children are not enrolled in schools. Drop out at the primary and high school level is very high. The incentive to send children to the school is to retain them there. Poverty and lack of appreciation cause drop out. Not enough schools with proper facilities. Number of schools exist on papers only i.e., Ghost schools.

Teachers related issues:
Shortage of qualified teachers at the lower levels is main cause of less interest of young students towards education. Student-teacher ratio is very high in Pakistan. So the teacher cannot properly treat students. Teachers are not given any incentives for devotion to the profession. Salary and other facilities especially at the lower levels are very disappointing. Training and refresher courses are also inadequate. New techniques of teaching and facilities needed for good teaching should be provided to the teachers.

Examination System:
Examination System remained a problematic issue in Pakistan. How to judge the performance of students is a difficult question. Instead of comprehension and depth of knowledge emphasis is laid on test of memory. Learning is geared to passing the examination. Some people work only at the end of the year and get good marks due to flaw in the system. Some of they use unfair means. Students have were little knowledge of how the papers are actually graded. This becomes a serious problem at the higher levels. Still there is a debate that whether Annual system or Semester system should be adopted.

Politicization:
Student groups have political links with outside groups. Political parties have their sub units in educational institutions, which result in use of violence and threats. This also damages the educational environment.
3: Kinds of Education: Primary:
From class 1 to 5 years is primary stage. Mosque schools are also working on this level. Efforts
are being made to make it universal.

Middle Level:
It is from class 6 to 8.

Secondary:
It is from class 9 to 10.

Higher Secondary:
It is from class 11 to 12.

Degree Level:
It is a university level education for 2 or 3 years for the award of bachelor degree of Science/ Arts.

University, Post Graduate Level:
M. A., M.Sc., M.Phil. and Ph. D. Specialized diplomas and programs are also offered at this level. Colleges are also teaching at Postgraduate level. Now some Colleges are given university status.


Professional:
Professional educational fields are Medical, Dentistry, Engineering, Business and Commerce are Technical and professional degrees.

Adult Education:
For adults who could not get education in their early years adult education is introduced for them.

Distance Education:

People do not go to an institution but stay home and get education. This method is useful for people in service and for those living in remote areas. This is a method of Improvement of qualification without actually going to an institution.
It is a Flexible system in which Lectures and tutorial system are used through media. Examples are:

• Allama Iqbal Open University.
• Virtual University: TV and Internet.

Privatization of Education:
Schools (English medium), Colleges and Universities are introduced in private sector. Some of them are imparting some good quality education but very expensive.

Military Foundations:

• Medical and IT education
• National University of Science and Technology
• Bharia University
• Air Force University

Modern Technology and Education:
Technology education means education of IT, Computers- software and hardware. IT and regular education, Access to knowledge and technical education.

Concluding Remarks:
Education in Pakistan could not play a proper role. That’s why Pakistan is much behind of some of the developing countries. The only way to meet the challenges of the time is to provide technical education at all levels. For that purpose spending on education should be raised. Primary education should be universal and women education should be enhanced. Only meaningful education can fulfill the demands of development.

a.o.a sir.. are these notes enough for both the periods? regards!