[CENTER][FONT="Arial Black"]SINDH MADRASAH, KARACHI (1886)[/FONT][/CENTER]

• Syed Hasan Afandi (President of Centeral Mohamadan Association of Karachi – influenced by Sir Syed) established  Hassan died in 1896  Wali Muhammad took over
• 1n 1943 – Board of the Madrasah decided to rename as Sindh Muslim College
• Quaid got education from this institute

[FONT="Arial Black"][CENTER][B]ISLAMIA COLLEGE, PESHAWAR[/B][/CENTER][/FONT]

• Edward College (1888) was a Christian missionary  need for institute for Muslims  Sahibzada Abdul Qayum established Dar-Ul-Uloom-Islamia in 1902
• Sahibzada Abdul Qayum established Funding committee in 1912  Dar-ul-Uloom raised to Islamia College Peshawar
• Qaid got education from this institute  Sahibzada called Sir Syed of NWFP
• Islamia College has major contribution in 1947 referendum

Do you have these notes in MS word format? because there is some font problem and some alphabets are missing..

[QUOTE=fadk;455665]Do you have these notes in MS word format? because there is some font problem and some alphabets are missing..[/QUOTE]

Yes I have them in word format. yes there is font problem but I dont think alphabets are missing. Only instead of bullets, it shows square  .

So, please consider  as a bullet, a bit explanation of the preceding comment.

[FONT="Arial Black"][B][CENTER]THE IDEOLOGY OF PAKISTAN: TWO-NATION THEORY[/CENTER][/B][/FONT]

The ideology of Pakistan stems from the instinct of the Muslim community of South Asia to maintain their individuality by resisting all attempts by the Hindu society to absorb it. Muslims of South Asia believe that Islam and Hinduism are not only two religions, but also two social orders that have given birth to two distinct cultures with no similarities.

The ideology of Pakistan took shape through an evolutionary process. Historical experience provided the base; with Sir Syed Ahmad Khan began the period of Muslim self-awakening; Allama Iqbal provided the philosophical explanation; Quaid-i-Azam translated it into a political reality; and the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, by passing Objectives Resolution in March 1949, gave it legal sanction. It was due to the realization of Muslims of South Asia that they are different from the Hindus that they demanded separate electorates. When they realized that their future in a 'Democratic India' dominated by Hindu majority was not safe; they put forward their demand for a separate state.

As early as in the beginning of the 11th century, Al-Biruni observed that Hindus differed from the Muslims in all matters and habits. He further elaborated his argument by writing that the Hindus considered Muslims "Mlachha", or impure. And they forbid having any connection with them, be it intermarriage or any other bond of relationship. They even avoid sitting, eating and drinking with them, because they feel "polluted".

The Ideology of Pakistan has its roots deep in history. The history of South Asia is largely a history of rivalry and conflict between the Hindus and Muslims of the region. Both communities have been living together in the same area since the early 8th century, since the advent of Islam in India. Yet, the two have failed to develop harmonious relations. In the beginning, one could find the Muslims and Hindus struggling for supremacy in the battlefield. Starting with the war between Muhammad bin Qasim and Raja Dahir in 712, armed conflicts between Hindus and Muslims run in thousands. Clashes between Mahmud of Ghazni and Jaypal, Muhammad Ghuri and Prithvi Raj, Babur and Rana Sanga and Aurangzeb and Shivaji are cases in point.
When the Hindus of South Asia failed to establish Hindu Padshahi through force, they opted for back door conspiracies. Bhakti Movement, Akbar’s diversion.


[CENTER][B][FONT="Arial Black"]IDEOLOGY OF PAKISTAN[/FONT][/B][/CENTER]

[FONT="Arial Black"]WHAT IS AN IDEOLOGY?[/FONT]

• A political ideology is a system of beliefs that explains and justifies a preferred political order, either existing or proposed and offers a strategy (Institution, processes, program) for its attainment.
• An ideology offers an interpretation of the past, explanation of the present and a vision of the future
• Ideology is a set of beliefs, values and ideals of a group and a nation. It is deeply ingrained in the social consciousness of the people.
• It is a set of principles, a framework of action and guidance system that gives order and meaning to life and human action.

[FONT="Arial Black"]HOW IDEOLOGY EMERGES[/FONT]

• When thinking of a nation or a social group is rejected.
• An ideology emerges when people feel strongly that they are being mistreated under an existing order, when their status is threatened by fundamental changes occurring in the society, and when the prevailing ideology no longer satisfies them

[FONT="Arial Black"]• STEPS OF IDEOLOGY EVOLUTION[/FONT]

o Consciousness
o Analysis of current situation
o Creating new thinking
o Legitimate – De-legitimate
o Role of Leadership

[FONT="Arial Black"]IMPORTANCE OF IDEOLOGY[/FONT]

• It is a motivating force
• It provides a common plate form.

[FONT="Arial Black"][B][CENTER]BASIS OF IDEOLOGY OF PAKISTAN[/CENTER][/B][/FONT]

• Based on ideals of Islam
• Historical experience provided the base; Allama Iqbal gave it a philosophical explanation; Quaid-i-Azam translated it into a political reality; and the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, by passing Objectives Resolution in March 1949, gave it legal sanction.
• It was due to the realization of the Muslims of South Asia that they are different from the Hindus that they demanded separate electorates. However when they realized that their future in a ‘Democratic India’ dominated by Hindu majority was not safe, they changed their demand to a separate state.
• Hindu British were exploiting Muslims in India. So Muslims adopted this ideology to save their identity and culture from total elimination.

[FONT="Arial Black"]TWO NATION THOERY[/FONT]

• Two-nation concept was based on Nationhood which was there long before Pak Ideology. Muslim Traders – Attackers – Rulers (Qutb Ud Din Abik, Ghaznavi) – Sufis (Al Hajveri, Sheikh Ahmad Serhandi)
• Based on fact that Muslims were separate nation having their own culture, civilization, customs, literature, religion and way of life.
• Despite living together for more than one thousand years, they continue to develop different cultures and traditions. Their eating habits, music, architecture and script, all are poles apart.
• The basis of the Muslim nationhood was neither territorial nor racial or linguistic or ethnic rather they were a nation because they belonged to the same faith, Islam. They demanded that the areas where they were in majority should be constituted into a sovereign state, wherein they could order their lives in accordance with the teachings of Holy Quran and Sunnah of Holy Prophet (PBUH).
• The Muslims were put into the backwardness with the help of Hindus. This was one of the outstanding motivations that paved the way to declare the separate identity of nationalism, the Muslim nationalism
• Due to British and Hindu exploitation they were forced to safe guard their national and relational identity.
• Sir Syed Ahmad Khan is pioneer of two nation theory. The Ali-Garh movement produced educated leadership who could protect the Muslims’ rights on the Western political lines.
• Two Nation Theory means that Pakistan should be a state where the Muslims should have an opportunity to live according to their faith and creed established on the Islamic principals. They should have all the resources at their disposal to enhance Islamic culture and civilization.
• There are two major nations in British India. The Muslims are not a community but a nation with a distinctive history, heritage, culture, civilization, and future aspirations. (All India Muslim League)
• The Muslims wanted to preserve and protect their distinct identity and advance their interests in India. They wanted to order their lives in accordance with their ideals and philosophy of life without being overwhelmed by an unsympathetic majority.
• Initially, they demanded safeguards, constitutional guarantees and a federal system of government with powers to the provinces for protection and advancement of their heritage, identity and interests. Later, they demanded a separate state when neither the British nor the Hindu majority community was willing to offer those guarantees and safeguards

[FONT="Arial Black"]EVOLUTION OF PAKISTAN IDEOLOGY[/FONT]

• British expansion had more deepening impact on Muslims as “The people who were important in history are no longer important” KK Aziz
• Urdu Hindi controversy under Congress leadership in 1867 in Banars
• Revivalist movements against Muslims – Bakhti, Deen e Elahi, Shuddi and Shanghtan movement
• Hindu attitude – Partition of Bangal and its repeal
• Political experience of Muslims under congress ministries in 1937-39

[FONT="Arial Black"][B]AIMS AND OBJECTIVE OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF PAKISTAN[/B][/FONT]

1. Enforcement of sovereignty of Allah Almighty
a. Quaid said “We do not demand Pakistan to acquire a piece of land, but we wanted a homeland where we could introduce Islamic principals”
2. Establishment of Islamic democracy
a. Quaid at Sibbi in 1948 “It is my firm belief that our salvation lied in following the golden rules of conduct as given by our great law giver, the prophet of Islam. Let us lay the foundation our democratic system on Islamic ideals and practices”
3. Revival of Muslim image and Identity
4. Protection of Muslim culture and civilization
a. Urdu Hindi controversy
b. Shuddi and Sanghtan Movements
5. Two Nation Theory
6. Establishment of a balanced economic system
a. All highly courts and military positions were reserved for Hindus.
b. Agriculture and Industry was dominated by Hindus
c. Islamic system has the benefit for poor as well as rich – Zakat, Ushar

[CENTER][B][FONT="Arial Black"]PAKISTAN IDEOLOGY AND QUAID E AZAM[/FONT][/B][/CENTER]

• He changed the course of history. He was a real charismatic leader possessing a visionary leadership.
• Gave practical shape to the ideology given by Sir Syed and Allama Iqbal
• He started his political career in 1906 by joining the Indian National Congress. He was elected to the Legislative Council in 1909 and in 1913 he also joined the All India Muslim League (AIML). Now he was member of both the political parties.
• Having disagreement with Gandhi on the issue of Swaraj (self-rule), complete freedom from the British and on using extra-constitutional means, Jinnah resigned from the Congress in 1920.

His early efforts to promote Hindu-Muslim unity were materialized when THE LUCKNOW PACT (1916) was signed. The Hindus accepted the Muslim demands:
o Separate Electorate
o One-third Seats in Central Legislature
o protection of minority rights

• In the Nehru Report, the accepted Muslim rights were ignored. Jinnah retaliated forcefully by presenting 14 Points in 1929.
• 1935 onwards Quaid started emphasizing on separate identity of Muslim and a separate nation. Started mobilizing masses.
• 1937  there are only two parties in India said Nehro on performance of ML in elctions. Quaid said “Muslims are third party in India”
• 1939  “Muslim and Hindu are two nations. We are going to live as a nation and play a role as a nation.”
• March 9, 1940  [B]Quaid wrote his only article published in British media namely “Time and Tide”. He discussed 1.How Hindu and Muslims are separate nations? 2. What should be future of India and how Muslims can be accommodated well?[/B]
• He emphasized on Islam as well as modern democracy, Social economic justice and rights of minorities.

[COLOR="Blue"]• [I][B]“Pakistan was to be a modern democratic state that derived its ethical foundation from Islam where the source of guidance and inspiration for constitution making and governance is going to be Islam”

• “It has been taken for granted mistakenly that Muslims are a minority, and of course we got used to it for such a long time that these settled notions sometimes difficult to remove. The Muslims are not a minority; the Muslims are a nation by every definition. By all canons of international law we are a nation.” [/B][/I]23rd March 1940

• [B][I]““India is not a nation, nor a country. It is a sub continent of nationalities, Hindus and Muslims belong the two major nations. The Hindus and the Muslims belong to two different religion, philosophies. Social customs and literature. They belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspect on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that both derive their inspirations from different sources of history”[/I][/B] 23rd March 1940

• [B][I]“We are a nation with our distinct culture and civilization, language and literature, art and architecture, sense of values and proportions, legal laws and moral codes, customs and calendars, history and traditions. In short we have our distinct outlook on life and of life By all canons of International law we are a separate nation[/I][/B].” 1942

• The Muslims are nation by every right to establish their homeland” 1942

• [B][I]“We should base our democracy on the principals and concepts of Islam”[/I][/B] Feb 1942

• [B][I]“Pakistan does not mean freedom and independence only, but the Islamic ideology as well which has to be preserved.”[/I][/B] June 1945

• [B][I]“I cannot understand a section of people who deliberately want to create a mischief and make propaganda that the constitution of Pakistan will not be made on the basis of Shariat. Islamic principals today are as applicable to life as they were 1300 years ago.”[/I][/B] Jan 25, 1948 Eid Milad Un Nabbi Karachi Bar Association[/COLOR]

[CENTER][B][FONT="Arial Black"]PAKISTAN IDEOLOGY AND ALLAMA IQBAL[/FONT][/B][/CENTER]

• Men like Allama Iqbal are born but in centuries
• His first public appearance was in 1899 at the annual session of Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam in Lahore when he presented the poem, Nala-i-Yatim.
• At initial stages Dr Iqbal was a nationalist by ideas and his poetry contained verses like Tarana-i- Hind.
• He wet Europe for higher education in 1905-08. Lived in England and got Phd from Munich University. He stayed in Hindenburg where he wrote poem Daraye Nekar key kenare.
• Represented Muslims in second and third round table conferences in 1931 and 1932.
• Gave the famous Allah Abad Address which late on provided base for Lahore resolution.

[I][COLOR="Blue"][B]• “I am fully convinced that Muslims of India will ultimately have to establish a separate homeland as they cannot live with Hindu in the United India.”

• “Religion and politics are not distinct from each other”

• “India is a continent of Human beings belonging to different religions. To base a constitution on the conception of homogenous India is to prepare her for civil war. I, therefore, demand the formation of a consolidated Muslim state in the best interest of the Muslims of India and Islam. The formation of consolidated North west Indian state appears to be the final destiny of the Muslims” Allaha Abad Address

• “I would like to see the Punjab, NWFP, Sind, Balochistan amalgamated into a single state as a self government within the British empire or without. This is the final destiny of the Muslims of N.W. India.” Allaha abad Address

• “I have been a staunch advocate of putting an end to the religious distinction from the country. But now I believe that the protection of separate national identity is in the best interest of Muslims and Hindus. Since the Muslims are a separate nation with their separate cultural values and religious trends, and they want to have a system of their own linking, they should be allowed to live under such system” Allaha Abad Address [/B][/COLOR][/I]

[CENTER][B][FONT="Arial Black"]
DECLINE OF MUGHAL RULE[/FONT][/B][/CENTER]
The death of Alamgir in 1707 is generally regarded as the beginning of the gradual decline, and ultimately fall, of the once extensive, prosperous and powerful Mughal Empire. Although it took nearly 150 years before the House of Babur finally disappeared from the scene, the cracks that had appeared at Alamgir's death widened.

His son Muazzam, who ruled from 1707 to 1712, succeeded Aurangzeb Alamgir. He took for himself the title of Bahadur Shah. He ruled for five years and momentarily revived the Mughal Empire. But the Marhatta's power increased and they became the unchallenged rulers of Deccan. In the province of Punjab, the Sikhs under Guru Govind Singh became a force to reckon with. One of the reasons that power centers kept springing up outside Delhi was the frequent change in the succession of Empires. Nearly 17 kings were crowned during the period spanning from 1707 to 1857.

The weakened Mughal Empire invited havoc in the form of the Persian king Nadir Shah, in 1738-39. On his orders a general massacre of the citizens of Delhi was carried out, resulting in the death of 30,000 people. Another threat to the Mughal Empire came from the Afghans of Rohilkhand, lying northeast of Delhi. By the middle of 18th century, the Rohillas became independent of the Mughal rule. At the same time the Jats also raised their heads against the central rule.

Taking advantage of this chaotic situation, the East India Company began strengthening its military capabilities. They conspired with Hindu traders and moneylenders against Nawab Sirajuddullah of Bengal to take over his principality. The Battle of Plassey of 1757 is considered a major breakthrough for the British in the Sub-continent. It paved the way for the company's rule in Bengal, and hence the whole of India ultimately came under the company's rule.

In the 19th century, Muslims like Syed Ahmad Brailvi and Shah Ismail carried out Jihad against the Sikhs, as did Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan in Deccan against the British. However, they failed in their efforts to stop the downfall of the Muslim rule. The final crunch came after the war of 1857 when the Mughal rule officially came to an end and India came under the direct rule of the British crown.

The Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent in the time of Aurangzeb Alamgir, but it collapsed with dramatic suddenness within a few decades after his death. The Mughal Empire owes its decline and ultimate downfall to a combination of factors; firstly Aurangzeb's religious policy is regarded as a cause for the decline of the Mughal Empire as it led to disunity among the people. Although the policy did lead to weakening of the empire but the major cause of decline was the lack of worthy and competent successors after him. The character of Mughal kings had deteriorated over a period of time. The successive rulers after Aurangzeb were weak and lacked the character, motivation and commitment to rule the empire strongly. They had become ease loving and cowardly. They totally disregarded their state duties and were unable to detain the declining empire from its fall.

The absence of any definite law of accession was another important factor. The war of successions not only led to bitterness, bloodshed, and loss of money and prestige of the empire over a period of time, but to its eventual fall. The degeneration of the rulers had also led to the moral degeneration of the nobility. Under the early Mughals, the nobles performed useful functions and distinguished themselves both in war and peace. But the elite under the later Mughals was more interested in worldly pursuit and self-enhancement. The nobles who had once been talented men with integrity, honesty, and loyalty, turned selfish and deceitful. Growth of hostile and rival clique in the court also undermined the strength of the government. Widespread corruption in the administration started and taking bribes became common.

One of the most potent causes of the fall of the Mughal Empire was the deterioration and demoralization of the army. The military had not only become inefficient but also lacked in training, discipline and cohesion. The army was out-dated in regard to equipment. It consisted of contingents maintained by various nobles, which was the main source of Army's weakness. As the weakening of the nobles occurred, so did the army. This was because of the soldiers, instead of identifying and uniting as Mughal Indians, identified themselves with different ethnic groups like Persian, Afghans and Central Asians. The Mughals had no navy and only maintained small ships that were no match for the well-equipped ships of the foreign traders. It was this weakness that the French and the British used to their advantage, and were eventually able to establish their control over India.

Another factor contributing to the decline was the financial position of the Mughals, which had become deplorable. The war of successions, rebellions and luxurious style of living had depleted the once enormous treasury and had led to financial bankruptcy. During the time of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire had expanded to reach its maximum size. This vast area had become impossible for one ruler to control and govern from one center. It was during the later Mughals that Deccan, Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa declared their independence. The raids by Nadir Shah, and repeated invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali, resulted in further weakening of the empire. The already weakened empire faced further encroachment by the British and the French, which proved to be the last nail in the already drowning empire's coffin. The British and French, who had initially come as traders, took full advantage of the weakening empire and soon became masters of the whole of India.


With special thanks to [url]www.storyofpakistan.com[/url]

[B][FONT="Arial Black"][B]CAUSES OF THE FALL OF MUGHAL EMPIRE[/B][/FONT][/B]

[B]1. Weak Successors of Aurangzeb[/B]
a. All merry making and unable, except Bahadar Shah
b. Left work to their Wazirs
[B]2. Vastness of the Empire[/B]
a. Aurangzeb empire – practically impossible
b. Afghanistan to Asaam, Kashmir to Maysor
c. Lack of effective means of communication
[B]3. Absence of a Definite Law of Succession[/B]
a. Akbar was only unopposed among 20 rulers
b. "The sword was the grand arbiter of right and every son was prepared to try his fortune against his brothers." Erskine
[B]4. Deterioration of Morality of Mughal Emperors[/B]
a. Fond of wine and women
[B]5. Degeneration of Nobility[/B]
a. Degeneration into sects and costs – Iranian, Toranian and Indian
[B]6. Deterioration of Army[/B]
a. Abundance of wealth and comfort
b. Loss of confidence
c. Demoralization
[B]7. Corrupt Administration[/B]
a. Ministers, nobels and officers accepted bribes
[B]8. Stoppage of Adventures from Persia, Afghanistan and Turkistan[/B]
a. This provided a change for Army to be lazy
[B]9. Invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali[/B]
a. Nadir Shah 1739 (looted for 57 days)
b. Ahmad Shah Abdali 1754 – 67 (5 times)
[B]10. Aurangzeb's Policy in Deccan[/B]
a. Golkonda and Bijapur served as a check to Maraths before conquest
[B]11. Absence of Naval Power[/B]
a. British and Portuguese had strong naval power
[B]12. Intellectual Bankruptcy [/B]
a. 17th & 18th century European saw industrial revolution
b. Mughals did not pay attention
[B]13. Plight of the Common People and Peasants[/B]
a. Bad economic conditions led to discontentment
[B]14. Rise of Marathas[/B]
a. Emergence of Maraths in 17th century
b. 18th century they extended their influence to Delhi
[B]15. Rise of Sikhs[/B]
a. During the reign of Jahandar Shah (1712 – 13) and Farrukhsiyar (1713 – 19)
[B]16. Rise of Hindus of Rajputana[/B]
a. Rajput of Mewar and Marwar distressed by Aurangzeb
[B]17. Outdated war equipment and tactics [/B]
a. Failed to keep pace with modern developments
b. Lack of modern weapons led the failure of battle of Plassy and Buxer
[B]18. Advent of English East India Company[/B]
a. Got trade access in Aurangzeb’s reign
i. Portuguese - suppressed by Aurangzeb
ii. British

[B][CENTER][FONT="Arial Black"]WAR OF INDEPENDENCE[/FONT][/CENTER][/B]

By 1845, the British Empire had expanded from Bengal to Sindh, and all that remained free was Punjab. The Sikhs were ruling over Punjab and after the Second Sikh War in 1848, the British gained control over the Indus. The Koh-i-Noor diamond that Ranjit Singh had worn in his headdress now became a part of the crown jewels at Westminster.

The War of Independence broke out in January and March 1857. The British army had recruited local Indians in their forces. These soldiers were issued cartridges greased with fat from tabooed animals. The soldiers refused to use these cartridges. In 1857, starting with an uprising in Meerut, soldiers in the British Army in Bengal launched a full-scale mutiny against the British. This mutiny spread swiftly across the Sub-continent. Initially, the Indian soldiers were able to push back the British forces. The British army was driven out of Delhi and the Indian soldiers took control of the city. Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal King, was compelled to lead the freedom fighters. In Bahadur Shah Zafar, the rebels found a symbol of freedom, but a mere symbol was all he was. Wanting to spend his days writing poetry, the man was in no way even a remnant of the glory of his forefathers. He proclaimed himself the Emperor of the whole of India. The civilians, citizens and other dignitaries took oath of allegiance to the Emperor. The Emperor issued his own coin and appointed his sons to key posts.

The initial success of the freedom fighters gave a boost to the War of Independence. The Indian army captured the important towns of Haryana, Bihar and Mahdya Pardesh. However, the British forces at Meerut and Ambala put up a resolute resistance to the royal army and held them back for several months. The British proved to be a formidable foe with their superior weapons and better strategy. The freedom fighters badly lacked in adequate resources and their planning proved to be extremely brittle. The royal forces were finally defeated. The British army entered Delhi and the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar went into hiding.
The British quickly regained control of Delhi. They ransacked and destroyed the city. They took revenge in the most gruesome manner by killing innocent people indiscriminately. A wide scale massacre of the inhabitants of Delhi was carried out to avenge the killings of the British soldiers. The Mughal emperor was captured from his sanctuary, the tomb of Emperor Humayun. The emperor's sons were slaughtered in cold blood. Their bodies were beheaded and their heads were presented to the aging emperor in prison. Bahadur Shah was imprisoned in Rangoon, Myanmar, where he breathed his last.

After the War of Independence in 1857, the British government assumed sovereignty over the lands of the British East India Company. The British control over the Sub-continent grew in the next 50 years and culminated in the British Raj. Queen Victoria's Indian realm continued to expand, until Hunza, the remote kingdom bordering China, fell into British hands in 1891, bringing the expansion to its zenith.
The British delineated the frontier separating British India from Afghanistan in 1893. The resulting Durand Line cut straight through the tribal area of the Pathans. The British left the tribal areas to govern themselves under the supervision of British political agents.

The British thus became masters of India, where for nearly 800 years Muslims had ruled. However, their attitude towards the Muslims was that of antipathy. According to Hunter, a prominent historian, "The Muslims of India are, and have been for many years, a source of chronic danger to the British power in India". The British attributed the war of 1857 to the Muslims alone. As a result, property belonging to Muslims was confiscated and they were denied employment opportunities everywhere in the army, revenue department, and judiciary.

The British administrators deliberately followed a discriminatory policy against the Muslims, even in filling minor jobs. Advertisements inviting applications for government jobs specifically mentioned that Muslims would not be appointed. Hunter admits that the exclusion of the Muslims was so complete that in the government offices of Calcutta they could not accept a post higher than that of a porter, messenger, filler of inkpots and mender of pens.

By a series of revenue and financial measures, the British smashed the political and social position of the Muslims. In the province of Bombay, the government appointed "Inam Commission" to inquire into the land grants of the Muslim times. The Commission took away 20,000 estates from the Muslims and thus ruined many families and institutions of the community.

The Company's commercial policy eliminated the Muslims from internal and foreign trade. When the Europeans came to the Sub-continent, the Muslim merchants lost much of their commerce with foreign countries. But they maintained their hold on internal trade and their commercial activities extended to the Persian Gulf and the coastal territories of the Arabian Sea. During the Company's rule, the Muslim traders were pushed out of this area as well by the competition of the Company's traders who enjoyed many special concessions.

The newly introduced English system of education had many drawbacks for the Muslims, mainly because it made no provisions for religious education. As a result, they stayed away from it. Thus, within a few years of loss of political power, the Muslims lost all avenues of employment, were dispossessed of their estates and deprived of the benefits of education. A highly cultured community turned into a backward and poor people. In their place British-educated Hindus began to occupy positions in governments offices formerly held by the Muslims.

With special thanks to [url]www.storyofpakistan.com[/url] for this.