2014: Factors which played a significant role in the evolution and growth of Muslim society in the subcontinent
Ans: The Indian subcontinent served as an attractive host to foreign invaders who attacked the region and helped open gates to the setting up , and growth, of the Muslim society. In order to accurately gauge into the said factors, it is necessary to view the events in a historical perspective , for they will resultantly provide for the requisite impetuses which can be termed as "factors" which lead to the subsequent evolution and growth of the Muslim society in this region.

To begin with, the conquest of Sindh in 712 AD by Muhammad bin Qasim demonstrates to be an important which paved the way for the Islamic settlements in the subcontinent. Prior to this, there existed small Arab settlements along the coasts which practised pre-Islamic beliefs. So when the wives and children of Arab traders landed on the Gulf of Debal due to a shipwreck and were taken as hostage to Raja Dahir, an enraged Hajjaj bin Yusuf, the then Governor of Iraq, sent MBQ to punish the pirates and King Dahir, and also to retrieve the victims. Upon MBQ setting foot in the region to defeat King Dahir and his army; history witnessed a great example of religious tolerance shown to towards the surviving Hindus and Buddhists as they were given the status of "People of the Book" and hence "Zimmis"(protected people). This subsequently encouraged the inhabitants of the subcontinent to turn towards Islam, which guaranteed equality and brotherhood, as opposed to the cruel caste system in Hinduism. Thus, in a novel way, the system of welfare of the common people embracing Islam was set up. In this regard, M. Kabir remarks "Undoubtedly the establishment of Islamic government in Sindh is the greatest event in the history of Islam". Therefore, it can be asserted that MBQ's initial invasion and treatment towards the non-Muslims attributed as a factor significant factor to the evolution of the Muslim society.

While MBQ's invasion of Sindh left a lasting impact on the region in terms of politics and culture, it was perhaps Mahmud of Ghazna's 17 ruthless attacks between 1000-1026 AD which should also be held as a factor to the evolution of the Muslim society in the subcontinent. It is contested that Mahmud attacked India essentially to transplant Islam in this area. This is indeed supported by the fact that he was accompanied by spiritual saints such as Sheikh Ismail Bokhari and Data Gunj Baksh on his way. A following argument of this statement is then that the said arrival of these spiritual and pious individuals also ultimately contributed to setting up of a Muslim society. On the other hand, Mahmud's blatant smashing of the Hindu temple of Somnath and his court historian Utbi's accounts declaring the invasion as Jihad indicate to the conclusion that Mahmud's arrival to India helped give way to a Muslim society. The complete blow to Hindu mighty rules of Jaypal and Anandpal primarily left a "psychological impact" of Mahmud's raid as noted by Sher Muhammad Garewal, in that he was never really defeated and hence his status and prestige was ranked high by the inhabitants of the sub continent.

While it is essential to regard the "religion" factor as being the most crucial in establishing a Muslim society, it is also important to take into consideration other vital arguments behind these invaders' arrival. For example with reference to MBQ, we must take into account the richness and fertility India possessed with regard to trade opportunities, the impending unpopularity of Raja Dahir's regime and the need for Persia to suppress the possibility of a strike from this region. Similarly, in Mahmud's case, historians are divided as to his actual intentions. Some claim he attacked purely out of love of plunder and loot, where as others denote that it may be attributable to his lustful ambition of conquests and annexation. Either way, these factors ultimately brought the attackers to India and thereby, by one means or the other, caused the evolution of the Muslim society.

In contrast to above, another set of vital reasons which must also be considered , are the contributions of Muslim reformers and Spiritual orders respectively.

The Muslim Reformist Movement provided a pivotal point for the society in general, and Muslims in specific. For example, Sheikh Ahmed Sirhandi (1564-1624), also referred to as Mujadid Alf Sani, reformed the Muslim society by speaking out against Akbar's version of religious propagation. During Jehangir's time, he wrote letters to the nobles of the court to infuse the Islamic way of life into the Empire but after being forced to bow down to the Empire and having refused to do so, he was imprisoned. In confinement, he continued preaching the basic tenets of Islam and when he was released, Jehangir recognised his efforts and this brought the two men close for the necessary preaching of Islam. Similarly, the Faraizi Movement in 1830, led by Haji Sharitaullah, identified the rising unorthodox social innovations in the society which detached the Muslims from true Islam. The movement was ultimately later organised in to a para-military force by his son, Dudu Mian who fought the goons of Indian landlords and police to re establish the Islamic society. Moreover, the later contributions by Shah Wali Ullah in 1732 and thereafter, such as translation of Holy Quran into Persian, clear commentary of Hadis compilations and urge to eliminate secretarian crisis between Sunni and Shia, also resulted in the growth of the Muslim society by resulting in a composite Islamic society. Additionally, Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi's Jehad Movement against the Sikhs in wars of Okara (1826), Hazara (1827) and Balakot (1831) truly highlighted that the purpose and aim to set a Muslim society should not only be confined to preaching but actual practical actions as well.

In the same way, the spiritual orders of Suhrawardi and Chisthtiya Movements led by respective saintly individuals invoked the revival of Islamic and ascetic values in the society. These Sufi movements reaffirmed the need to establish a connection with a higher supreme authority, coupled with teachings of equality, love and brotherhood and negation of worldly things. In this regard, we can propose that these movements assisted in the further growth of the Muslim society in terms of re connecting them with their own spiritual self first and then at a community level.

In conclusion, it can laid out that the initial attacks by the invaders principally set the scene for the evolution of the Muslim society. Once established, the following reformist and spiritual movements took the wheels for the growth and nourishment of the Muslim society by providing them with direction, correction and remedy to return to the true Islamic ways of a society.

2014: Evaluate the impact of the services rendered by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan towards the regeneration of the Muslims?

Ans: Allama Iqbal rightly commented that “The real greatness of Sir Syed consists in the fact that he was the first Indian Muslim who felt the need of a fresh orientation of Islam and worked for it.” This holds true for Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, born on 17 October 1817, at the prime advent of the great fall of the now not so Great Mughals. Having served the East India Company in 1837 and then as a sub judge in 1841, Sir Syed recognized the urgent need of reform for the Muslims of the subcontinent after the War of Independence in 1857 in order to revive and regenerate them for claiming their previously held rightful glory.

Sir Syed rendered an array of diverse services towards the regeneration of the Muslims. To start with, after the unpleasant outcome of War of Independence, with the British blaming the Muslim fraternity for disloyalty, Sir Syed embarked upon the service of re establishing cordial relations between the two. In this regard he wrote Asbab-e-Baghwat-e-Hind (Causes of the Indian Revolt) in order to soften the British hostility towards the Muslims and their said role in the 1857 Mutiny. Similarly, he also wrote Loyal Mohammaden, thereby emphasizing the loyal and obedient nature of the Muslims. The basic intended impact of these two writings were to invoke a sense of comfort in the British who now believed Muslims to untrustworthy. To further ease out the tensions and misconceptions, Sir Syed employed religious means to stress upon the similarities between Islam and Christianity. He resultantly write Tabeen-e-Kalam and Taham-i-Ahle Kitab to bring the British Christians closer to Muslims of India. The subsequent impact was that British became aware of the various commonalities between the two religions and they began to understand unique Muslim beliefs and practices as having concrete grounds.

On the political front, Sir Syed was active in uplifting the Indians, and specially Muslims' concerns. For this reason, he formed the British Indian Association at Aligarh in 1866 to allow a platform to Indians to vent out their grievances to the British. Other similar associations such as the Indian Patriotic Association in 1888 and Mohammaden Defense Association in 1903 are also notable as they were the product of Hindu nationalist movement and forum to assert Muslims rights respectively. While these forums proved to be crucial for Muslims to voice out their opinions, perhaps the most important of Sir Syed's political service is his Two Nation Theory, formulated after the eye opening events of Hindi Urdu Controversy of 1867. The Hindus of Central Provinces asserted Hindu to be made the official language and replace Urdu. Prior to this, Sir Syed was a staunch advocate of Hindu Muslim Unity and positively regarded India as "a beautiful bride" and "Hindu and Muslims as its eyes". However, after noticing the menacing movement of Hindus to depose Urdu as the official language, Sir Syed presented his famous Two Nation Theory.

Convinced that "now that Hindus and Muslims could never become one nation", Sir Syed was deeply saddened to advise Muslims to part their ways. This Theory later served as a driving force for the struggle and achievement of Pakistan. It was hailed by Allama Iqbal and Jinnah who regarded it as one of the cornerstones for the demand of a separate homeland indeed. The Theory rightly created a lasting impact on the Muslims of India who identified the ulterior motives of the Hindus and became wary of them in the future.

While Sir Syed's political services generated a strong impact on the Muslims to wake up from their deep slumber, his social services cannot be ignored too. By writing "Essay on the Life of Muhammad and Rebattle", he intended to remind the Muslims of the best example available who can guide them in all social spheres of life. Ina addition to this, in Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq, he criticized the conservative ways of life and urged Muslims to embrace modernity and technology, but all the while staying within the ambit of religion. These services aided the Muslim to recognize that progress can be made by remaining within the ambit of religion and that in fact, Islma propagates acquiring of knowledge and progress all the way as well.

Since Sir Syed essentially called for political, religious and social regeneration of Muslims, he based his premise on education. In this regard, the most credited for is his Aligarh Movement in the educational sphere. As per Zakir Hussain " It seems this Institution has a great role to play in the development of India's national life". The Movement primarily aimed to improve relations between Muslims and British, to uplift the social and economic position of the Muslims via knowledge and to increase political awareness amongst them. Therefore, Sir Syed began his ever famous educational services by setting up schools at Muradabad in 1859 and Ghazipur in 1863. He further established a Scientific Society at Ghazipur un 1864 which undertook the translation of all modern works into Urdu and Persian for the Muslim masses to be acquainted with them. He also organised the Muhammaden Educational Conference in 1866 to initiate discussions of modern educational techniques. To gain more insight to modern education systems, he visited Oxford in 1869. Upon his return, he successfully set up Anjuman-e-Taraqi-Musalman-e-Hind in 1870 and subsequent Muhammad Anglo Oriental (MAO) school in 1874. This historic school proved to be an impetus for future times, having been upgraded to college in 1877 and finally a university in 1920. Rightfully so then, the biggest contribution by Sir Syed is his ever lasting Aligarh Movement which fruitfully paved the way for the ultimate regeneration of Muslims.

The Movement's importance can be highlighted from the fact it led to establishing of more educational institutions in other neighbouring areas. Likewise, it also gave birth to various Muslim specific organisations namely All Indian Islamic Foundation, Sadaq Trust, South Indian Educational Trust etc. As a whole, Aligarh Movement opened the doors of educational, political, religious and economic awareness prosperity for the Muslims of the sub-continent. In the words of Nirad C. Chaudhri "Aligarh remains true to Islamic way of life. It is Islamic without in any way sacrificing modernisation".

On the whole, Sir Syed's services should be applauded for sowing the seeds of Muslim nationalism and thereby urging them to take charge in the various fields of life.