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Default Most Important Topics of Pak Affairs

Islam in the Subcontinent

“The first period covers the period from711 to 1757 and the second, from 1757 to the present.”

The Establishment of the Muslim Rule

The First Phase (711-1186)
The year 711 marks the initial contact of Muslims with India under the leadership of seventeen year old commander Muhammad bin Qasim who arrived in Sindh. After that, Muslim rule persisted in India for three hundred years. Three hundred years later, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna invaded India seventeen times. He did not establish a strong foundation of his empire in India and died in 1030.

The Sultanate Period (1192-1525)

In 1192, Muizuddin Ghori, a governor of Turkish Muslim origin from Ghazni, invaded on India and extended his empire towards Delhi and Ajmer. His lieutenant established Muslim rule in Bengal in 1204. The period from Ghori’s successors, known as the Slave sultans, until the advent of the Mughals in 1526 is known as the Sultanate period. During this time a total of seventeen sultans ruled over various parts of India. One of the sultans, Ala al-Din Khalji (1296-1316), extended Muslim control to central and parts of southern India.

Muhammad ibn Taghluq (1325-1351) conquered territory in the deep south of India and moved his capital to Devagiri.

By1500 Islamic culture and faith had become integrated into Indian society.

The Muslims of South Asia built on a legacy of Iran-Turkish culture and spread this culture in their dominion. Though they were of Turkish origin, the language of high culture and administration was Persian. Although Turkish hegemony was weakened by later dynasties such as the Khaljis (1290-1320) and the Tughluqs (1320-1413) when indigenous Muslims and no-Muslims were incorporated into the ruling polity.
The year 711 marks the initial contact of Muslims with India under the leadership of seventeen year old commander Muhammad bin Qasim who arrived in Sindh. After that, Muslim rule persisted in India for three hundred years.

The Mughals (1526-1748)
The Mughals were heirs to the Sultanate period’s Indo-Islamic tradition and built a magnificent empire. The founder of the Mughal rule, Muhammad Zahir al –Din Babur (reigned 1526-1530) encountered the two concentrations of power in India: the Muslim Afghan ruler, Ibrahim Lodi and the Rajput Hindu leader, Rana Sanga in 1526 and 1527 respectively. Having defeated both of them, he laid the strong foundation of his empire which inaugurated the most glorious period in the history of South Asian Islam.

Babur and his descendants were the born leaders of men. Babur’s son, Humayun, could not consolidate the areas he inherited from his father. In 1539, he was ousted and replaced by a capable Afghan leader, Sher Khan Sur. Sher Khan left a brilliant record of his administrative reforms in a very short period of his leadership (1539-1545). Humayun, after spending fifteen years in Iran as a fugitive, recovered his throne in India in 1555 only to die in 1556.

Humayun’s son, Jalal al-Din Muhammad Akbar (1556-1605), is remembered in Indo-Islamic history as the builder of the Mughal empire. He initiated territorial expansion, centralized administration, effective fiscal policy and united the heterogeneous ruling- the Persians, Turks, Uzbeks, Afghans, Indian Muslims and the Rajputs by imbuing a common identity of their spiritual and political bond to the person of the emperor.

His successors, Jahangir (1605-1627), Shahjahan (1628-1658) and Aurangzeb (1658-1707), successfully implemented his policies with some changes. The frontiers of the empire expanded and the architectural, artistic and literary activities thrived.

The Mughals were able to unify India. However, wars of succession, an inefficient administrative structure and weakened leadership caused the decline and collapse of the centralized imperial system.

The East India Company’s representative, Lord Clive, defeated the Muslim forces in the battle of Plassey in 1757 and Lord Lake took over the administration of Delhi in 1803. However, the successor states carried their cultural traditions until1857 when the colonization of India by the British was completed and an English colonial political, social and economic order came to be enforced over India.

The Coming of British Rule
The British East India Company had, in fact, been engaged in trade with India since the year 1600. In 1772, Warren Hastings was appointed as British Governor of Bengal and consolidated existing British commercial interests. British power came to be extended over various regions formerly under Muslim control.

The Eighteen Century: A “Dark” Century
In1707, the death of Aurangzeb signaled the collapse of the centralized Mughal government. The former provinces of the Mughal Empire became successors states, notably Awadh, Bengal, Haiderabad and Sind. In 1739, Delhi was sacked by the Iranian ruler, Nadir Shah Afshar. The Hindu Maratha attempt to gain power received a setback when they were defeated in 1761 by the Afghan leader, Ahmad Shah Abdali. British and French trading companies had appeared by this time in Bengal and Deccan.

However, it was not until 1748 when the ruler of Haiderabad, Nizam al-Mulk, died that Muslims began to become aware of the new threats to their authority.

In 1757, in the skirmish of Plassey, the East India Company’s force, with the help of their local allies, defeated the governor of Bengal and installed a puppet governor. The Company was entrenched in the region when they defeated the local allied forces, including the Mughals in 1764. They then forced the Mughal ruler, Shah Alam ll (died 1806), to hand over the civil governments of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the company.

Through their strategy of playing one group against the other, the company gradually gained control over other regions of India, including Delhi in 1803, Punjab in 1842 and Sind and Awadh by 1856.

The Mughals were able to unify India. However, wars of succession, an inefficient administrative structure and weakened leadership caused the decline and collapse of the centralized imperial system.


Muslims and the British Raj (1757-1857)
There were different religious movements aimed at reforming the Muslim society. Whereas the Wali-Allah generation tried to revive dynamism in the community through religio-moral reconstruction, subsequent generations showed sensitivity to political, economic and social development. This change is reflected in the activities of the Faraidis in Bengal and the Mujahidins in the Northwestern part of India.

The founder of the Faraidis movement, Haji Shariat-Allah (1781-1831), focused on the proper practice of the obligatory duties of Islam. The movement maintained its puritanical stance but became more political and aggressive under the leadership of Shariat-Allah’s son, Muhsin al-Din Ahmed, known as Dudu Miyan. The Faraidis clashed with the landlord, indigo planters and the police and refused to pay the taxes.

The other religio-political movement in Uttar Pardesh, Bihar, and the northwestern part of India is known as the Mujahidin Movement. The leaders of this movement, Sayyid Ahmed Shaheed (1786-1831) and Shah Muhammad Ismail (1781-1840), were greatly influenced by the Wali-Allah tradition. They successfully tried to rejuvenate the Muslim community in India by fusing Tariqa-i-Muhammadiyya with Wahhabism.

Educational System: The Eighteen Century

The examples of two madrassas; the Madrassa-i-Rahimiyya and Firangi Mahall provide differing approaches to change. Shah Wali-Allah (1703-1762), as head of the Madrassa-i-Rahimiyya, was an heir to the Indo-Islamic intellectual and theological heritage as well as that of Arabia where he studied. In his monumental work, Hujjat Allah al-Baligha (Great Divine Proof), he attempted to integrate the spiritual and material domains of human life. His emphasis on reinterpretation of the sources of Islamic law, the devaluing of differences among the four schools of Sunni law, the benefits of making the Quranic text available through translation to the community, and his belief in the forerunner of nineteenth-century modernists. He devised the simpler syllabus focusing on the core sciences of Islamic law, theology, hadith, and the sole study of Quranic text.

At the Firangi Mahall, a school established for Muslim education, the emphasis was on philosophy and rational sciences. The curriculum, developed by Mulla Nizam al-Din, remained popular in the Indo-Pakistan sub continent until 1969.

In the eighteenth century, the Naqshbandiyya stood out among Sufi groups for their reformation activities and scholarship. In their khanqahs in Sirhind, Dehli, Punjab and Sind, they expanded their energies in popularizing the prophetic tradition, application of Muslim law and reconstruction of religio-moral behavior of their disciples.

From a Quest for Rapprochement to Seeking Independence (1857-1947)
In religious and cultural spheres, this event did not bring about an abrupt end to the previous trends. Leadership of the community in political, cultural as well as religious matters shifted form religious scholars to the descendants of Mughal nobility. This new group of intellectuals, called the modernists, was not a product of traditional education. Noteworthy among them were Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1898), Sayyid Ameer Ali (1849-1928), and Shibli Numani (1857-1914).

The main preoccupation of these modernists was the uplift of Muslims. Through their writings they defended the Muslims’ religious and cultural heritage in the face of British imperialism.

Sayyid Ahmad Khan played an important role in developing an awareness of social, political and religious issues among Muslims. He presented Islam as a rational and natural religion fully capable of accommodating. In 1875, with the support of the British, he established the MAO College which later became a university known as Aligarh Muslim University.

Shibli also envisioned a modern Islam with traditional roots. He taught at Aligarh for sixteen years. Shibli, frustrated with the lack of depth in the training of students at Aligarh, took keen interest in an institution, known as Nadwat al-Ulama. Founded by Muhammad Ali Mongheri in Lucknow in 1894 for training future ulama, it was masterful in traditional Islamic and modern sciences and capable of producing scholarship of high calibre.

The next generation of intellectual, political and social leadership was provided by men who were journalists and poets in their early careers, namely, Muhammad Ali (1878-1931), Muhammad Iqbal (1876-1938), Abul Kalam Azad (1888-1958) and Sayyid Abul Ala Maudid (1903-1979). They were in the forefront of political movements in mobilizing their community to seek social and political gains.

Muhammad Ali was educated at an English school and was the first graduate from the Oxford University returning to his home-state, Rampur. He adopted journalism as his profession by starting the journal Comrade in 1911. This journal became an effective vehicle for expression of the discontent and anger of the Muslim intelligentsia. In1920, he founded Jamia Millia, an educational institution in Delhi, rivaling Aligarh college.

Muhammad Iqbal, “The most daring intellectual modernist, the Muslim World has produced,” in the words of the late scholar of Islam Fazlur Rahman, was the son of a tailor and grandson of a shawl peddler in Sialkot, a small town in West Punjab. Like other modernists, he studied in Western philosophy at Cambridge, Law at London’s Lincoln Inn, and received a doctorate from Munich University by writing PhD dissertation on Persian and Metaphysics. Like Shibli, Iqbal had a solid background in Arabic, Persian and Islamic Philosophy prior to his exposure to Western thought. He was a recognized poet at the age of 22.


Continuity and Change: 1947 and Beyond
The most enduring legacy of Iqbal, however, is not his reconstruction of Islamic thought but his idea of an autonomous homeland for Indian Muslims which was realized in 1947 with an establishment of Pakistan. Azad and Maududi could be considered together because of similarities in their backgrounds and activities. Each had traditional Islamic education, did not attend English schools, chose journalism as a profession, and was involved in Islamic religious reinterpretation. Azad founded a serious journal al-Hilal in 1912.

Twenty years later, Maududi started his Tarjuman al-Quran. Both used their journals as their main instrument for expounding their views on religious, state, law and socio-political issues. His journal had a short span of just over two years. Maudid’s Tarjuman outlined him and is still in circulation with a large readership. In 1913, Azad founded a party called Hizbullah (Party of God) to establish a system of government for social welfare in accordance with Divine injunctions. Maududi also founded Jamaat-I Islami, an organization of his own, to counter the drive for a homeland for Muslims.

Maududi was preoccupied with writing about the Muslim community and an ideal Islamic state. In 1938, he established training centre called Dar al-Islam (House of Islam) for the selected graduates of traditional and modern education systems and train them for moral and intellectual leadership. Both Azad and Maududi wrote commentaries on the Quran in urdu (Tarjuman al-Quran and Tafhim al-Quran respectively) for the purpose of religious reform of Indian Muslims by providing them direct access to the Quranic text in urdu.

Azad translated and commented on the first eighteen of the thirty chapters of the Quran and Maududi exegesis covered the entire Quranic text. Maududi’s major writings, including the Tafhim have been translated into English and several languages whereas Azad’s writings are accessible only to an Urdu readership.

Pan-Islamism, Separatism and Composite Nationalism
In the early 1920s, many Indian Muslims joined in launching the Khilafat movement (1919-1924). The goal of this movement was to pressure the British government to preserve the Ottoman Turkish territories as they were in 1914, and to safeguard the centrality of the spiritual and temporal position of the Ottoman sultan as a caliph of the Islamic world. Its uniqueness rested in the fact that it became a pan-Indian movement. On March 1, 1924, the National Assembly of Turkey voted to depose the Ottoman sultan and abolish the institution of caliph.

Modernism and Traditionalism

Among the post-independence modernists in Pakistan, the most noteworthy is Dr Fazlur Rahman (1919-1988), a Cambridge University graduate with a solid background in traditional Islam. He made a substantial contribution to the modernization of Pakistani laws. He was appointed the director of the Institute in 1936 and held that position until 1968. He left his imprint on the Family Laws Ordinance (1961).

The Political Leadership and Islam

Muhammad Ali Jinnah spoke to the Constituent assembly on August 11, 1947:
“You are free, you may go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place to worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion or caste or creed that has nothing to do with the business of the State. We are starting in the days when there is no discrimination, no distinction between one community and another, no discrimination between one caste or creed and another.”

the subject of Islam in this newly-born fledgling state and its affairs became an important element of political discourse. The ideological polarization of the community between the ulama and the modernists which had divided the community before 1947 continued after independence and shaped and nurtured the ideological cross-currents in Pakistan. The constitution of 1956, 1962 and 1973 reflect the fusion of secular and modernistic Islamic elements.
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Default Shaikh Ahmed Sarhindi (1564 – 1624) (Mujaddid Alif Sani)

Shaikh Ahmed Sarhindi (1564 – 1624) (Mujaddid Alif Sani)

“He is described as Mujaddid Alf Sani, meaning the "reviver of the second millennium",
for his work in rejuvenating Islam and opposing the heterodoxies prevalent in the time of Mughal Emperor Akbar.”

Introduction:
Shaikh Ahmed Sarhindi popularly known as Mujaddid Alif Sani was born in 1564. He was an Indian Islamic scholar from Punjab and a prominent member of the Naqshbandī Sufi order. He is described as Mujaddid Alf Sani, meaning the "reviver of the second millennium", for his work in rejuvenating Islam and opposing the heterodoxies prevalent in the time of Mughal Emperor Akbar. This great reformer of Islam used all his energies to purge Islam from all evils.

Early Education:
Shaikh Ahmed received his early education at home.
He learnt The Holy Quran by heart very early.
Then he took to the study of Hadith, Tafsir and Philosophy and went to renowned scholars at various place.
When he was 28 he went to Delhi and joined the Naqshbandiyah order, and soon received its Khilafat from Khwaja Baqi-Billah (972-1012 A.H).
Khwaja is the person from whom this order begins in India.
It is said that he was directed in a vision to leave his home, Afghanistan, and go to India, where he had initiated a very great man into the order.
This great man was Shaikh Ahmad.

Religious Conditions During Mujaddid’s Time:
When the great Mujaddid came to his task of reform,
he found that Tasawwuf had taken complete possession of the Muslim soul.
A Pantheistic deity had been substituted for the Monotheistic, Personal Transcendent God of Islam.
Excessive belief in Karamat or miracles of saints was commonly cherished.
Many un-Islamic means of the development of occult powers had been introduced into Tasawwuf itself.
The mystic had gone to the extent of denying the commandments of Shari’at or the Law of Islam as universally binding,
They regarded Shari’at itself as something external and superficial.
They were indifferent to the Sunnah or the example of the Holy Prophet.
Ulema referred to Jurisprudence rather than Quran

“He had to re-establish the authority of The Holy Qur’an and Sunnah and reduce Fiqh or jurisprudence to its proper place. He had to contend against the mystic pantheistic theory of Wahdatul Wujud of Ibnul ‘Arabi.”

United Social Order:
In such a situation when the Muslim forces had weakened,
Akbar lost hope that the Ulema would be successful in establishing a united social order on the basis of Islam’s superiority
relying on an Iranian concept that after every thousand years a requirement of life and its exact anti-thesis becomes the crying need of the times.

At the cost of Islam, Akbar employed the worldly-wise Ulema and intellectuals who repudiated revolution and denied the validity of Shariah.
The high and the low declared spiritual reality to the Emperor who rejected The Holy Qur’an and refused to accept the concept of life after death;
in the Kalema in place of the words “Muhammad is the Prophet of Allah” the words “Akbar is the Khalifah of Allah” were openly substituted.

Hazrat Mujdid Alf Sani’s Reforms:
Thus the times cried for the appearance of a great reformer.
He had to establish that he was the reformer.
He had to contend against the Ulema of all shades and opinions.
He had to challenge the mighty Emperor who had set up a rival religion with inexhaustible material,
intellectual, demographical, and other resources totally inimical to Islam.
He had to re-establish the authority of The Holy Qur’an and Sunnah and reduce Fiqh or jurisprudence to its proper place.
He had to contend against the mystic pantheistic theory of Wahdatul Wujud of Ibnul ‘Arabi.

Religious Services:
In the 16th century, during the reign of Akbar, Islam faced overwhelming threats.
The Din-i-Ilahi, as propounded by Akbar, was a mixture of various religions.
It recognized no gods or prophets and the emperor was its chief exponent.
Akbar was actually influenced by the Bhakti Movement that had started during the Sultanate period.
Many sufis condemned his religious innovations.
However, the man who took it upon himself to revive Islam was Sheikh Ahmad of Sarhind, commonly known as Mujaddid Alf Sani.
Through verbal preaching, discussions and his letters addressed to important nobles and leaders of religious thought, he spread his message amongst the elite in particular.

Refusal to prostrate before Jahangir
As soon as Akbar died and Jahangir ascended the throne, Sheikh Ahmed Sarhindi came out to reform and to do away with all Un-Islamic practices and beliefs initiated by Akbar among the Muslims. Sheikh Ahmed Sarhindi never entered into any political conflict directly. He wrote letters to all the nobles' of Jahangir's court. Most of them were the same who were present in Akbar's court. The opponents of Sheikh also came out and he was dubbed as an atheist by them. So Sheikh was summoned to the court of Jahangir ans was asked to bend down. He was so rigid in his approach towards Islam that he did not bend before the emperor as per the prevalent custom. His plea that bending down before anyone except Allah was un-Islamic annoyed Jahangir, who ordered for his imprisonment in the Fort of Gawaliar for two years due to his discourteous behaviour.

Preaching of Islam during the Imprisonment in Gawaliar's Fort
Hazrat Mujaddid continued preaching of Islam during the imprisonment in the Fort of Gawaliar. Due to his efforts thousands Non-Muslims accepted Islam. After a year however, Jahangir under the influence of his Islamic writings released him from jail and offered huge gifts to him. The king befriended and respected the Sheikh. He listened to his advices. After Maghrib prayers the king would grant him special audience where Sheikh would talk about religious affairs to Jahangir. He asked his son Shah Jahan to become a spiritual disciple of the Sheikh.



Full Command over Quranie Knowledge:
At the time of laying claim in Mujaddid hood at the head of the forthcoming thousand years of Islam, he had established solid reputation for erudition, and full command over Qur’anic and canonical knowledge. He had reached the highest step of the most respected disciplines of the Sufi orders –
which was a rare distinction. Mujaddid adopted the following measures to fight against the heresy:

Preparation of Disciples:
Firstly, he prepared a number of his disciples for the work and sent them in all directions in India as well as the contiguous Muslim countries to preach the true Islam.

Maktubat-e-Imam Rabbani
Shiekh Ahmed adopted an effective method of persuasion by writing letters to the leading nobles of the royal court. His letters are known as Maktubat-e-Imam Rabbani. Through preaching, discussions and his maktubat addressed to important nobles and leaders of religious thought, he spread his message amongst the elite in particular. Letters and messages were sent to them exhorting to serve the cause of Islam. He also requested the scholars to show the right path to the people, and the King. He asked the saints to give up their Un-Islamic practices and beliefs.

Books and Magazines (Risala)
Rejecting the heterodoxies of the great Mughal Emperior Akbar, this eminent Islamic mystic of this time and a hardcore Sunni Muslim strongly refuted the shia point of view in his writing entitled Risala Tahliliyya and made a major contribution towards rehabilitation of orthodox Islam in India.

He wrote many books, including his famous works, Isbat-ul-Nabat and Risal-i-Nabuwat. In these works the need and importance of prophethood was described. His greatest work on Islamic philosophy was the Tauheed-i-Shuhudi. Sheikh Ahmed continued preaching Islam till the end of his days. He urged peopled to adhere to the accepted and clearly laid down path of Islam.

Correspondence:
Secondly, he started a vast correspondence with men of eminence in various parts of these countries. These epistles were widely circulated. They expounded religious truths, and laid the greatest emphasis on Ittiba-e-Sunnat.

Enlistment of great Nobles:
Thirdly, he enlisted the great nobles of the Imperial Court as his disciples and used them to bring about a change in the life of those circles, and to influence the Emperor towards a change of heart.
“Sheikh Ahmad's greatest contribution was undoubtedly the task of countering unorthodox Sufism and mystic beliefs. He wrote many books, including his famous works, Isbat-ul-Nabat and Risal-i-Nabuwat. His greatest work on Islamic philosophy was the Tauheed-i-Shuhudi.”

Campaign After Akbar:
Fourthly, when Akbar died and Jehangir succeeded, the Shaikh started a campaign.
People had to take a vow that they would not obey any orders contradictory to Islam. This campaign was extended also to the army.

Wahdat-al-Shuhud
The philosophy of Wahdat-al-wujud was presented by some Sufis of Akbar's time. They believed that the entire universe is the symbol of Almighty God and a source of revelation of God's sovereignty. He vehemently opposed the Sufi doctrine of Wahdat-al-Wujud which maintained, that real Being is Allah and we are all His manifestations. This approach resulted in bringing about greater unity among people of different religion, race and tribe.

He was highly critical of the philosophy of Wahdat-al-Wujud, against which he gave his philosophy of Wahdat-al-Shuhud. Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi preached the doctrine of what he called Wahdat-al-Shuhud i.e. unity of witnessing. Thus he maintained that we are not manifestation of One Being but it is only an appearance, not reality. The implications of the doctrine of Wahdat-al-Shuhud were quite grave as it emphasizes superiority of people of one religion on the other and for that reason that religion should be kept pure and divested of all other influences.
According to this doctrine, the experience of unity between God and creation is purely subjective and occurs only in the mind of the Sufi who has reached the state of fana' fi Allah (extinction in God).

Sufism and Mystic Beliefs:
Sheikh Ahmad's greatest contribution was undoubtedly the task of countering unorthodox Sufism and mystic beliefs.
He wrote many books, including his famous works, Isbat-ul-Nabat and Risal-i-Nabuwat.
His greatest work on Islamic philosophy was the Tauheed-i-Shuhudi.
He urged people to adhere to the accepted and clearly laid down path of Islam.

Two Nation Theory
Mujaddid Alif Sani cleared on the Muslims that they were the separate nation from Hindus and nothing was common in them.
Therefore, the Muslim should keep themselves distinct from Hindus with reference to food, dress, social custom and way of life.
With this declaration, he founded the first stone of Two Nation Theory in Indo-Pak subcontinent which led to the success of Pakistan Movement and establishment of Pakistan.
That's why Hazrat Mujaddid was rightly called First Founder of Pakistan.

He passed away in 1624.


Works:
Most famous of his works are a collection of 536 letters,
collectively entitled Collected Letters or Maktubat, to the Mughal rulers and other contemporaries.
It consists of three volumes.
An elaborate printing of the book was accomplished in 1973 in Nazimabad, Karachi, Pakistan.
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Default Hazrat Shah Waliullah (1707-1762)

Reformation Movement of Hazrat Shah Waliullah (1707-1762)

“Shah Waliullah rendered meritorious services for the good of the Muslim community. He appealed the Muslim community persistently to turn to the Quran. He made them clear that the Holy Quran has stood the test of times and could solve all their problems.”

Background
Shah Waliullah was born in 1703. This period is marked as persistent decline and deterioration all over in the Muslim society. The people had no peace of mind and no safety of life. Loot and plunder, feuds and fighting had spread everywhere. Disintegration of the Mughal Empire had set in and the Muslims were split among themselves. Consequently, they suffered much at the hands of the Sikhs, Jats and Marhatas.

When Aurangzeb Alamgir died, Shah Waliullah was only four years old. No less than ten rulers ascended the throne one after the other during his lifetime. None of them was competent enough to stem the tide of decline. The attack of Nadir Shah ruined Delhi and made it vulnerable for more attacks.

Economic Background of Shah Waliullah’s time
Political decline had made the country virtually bankrupt, exploitation of the rich, life of luxury and ease, Jagirdari system, heavy taxes and political anarchy collapsed the country economically. Middle class, that has always been bone of a country, had been extinct virtually.

For an improved and reformed economy, Shah Waliullah thought it necessary that the basic necessities of life should be provided to the people. That state would be considered a welfare state where this is done.

Corrupt Government
“A corrupt government, which neglects satisfying the basic needs of life, ‘says Shah Waliullah’, should and must be overthrown by every hook and crook. If it is allowed to continue, its corruption will spread like a cancer first in some members of the administration, which, if it is not cut out from its very root, will go on spreading till the whole body will disintegrate”.

Religious Conditions
The luxury of Akbar and Shah Jehan period led the so-called Ulema to discuss dogmatic intricacies in terms of reasons. As they failed to furnish the religious grounds to the rational one, they started propagating against the very teachings of Islam. No research and investigation was made by the learned in the affairs of religion as to solve the problems emerging from time to time. Sufis were hollow, and had no knowledge of the Holy Qur’an and the Traditions.

Differences of Shiites and Sunnies
Shah Sahib made a very serious effort to iron out the differences of Shiites and Sunnies. Shah Sahib rendered meritorious services for the good of the Muslim community. He appealed the Muslim community persistently to turn to the Quran. He made them clear that the Holy Quran has stood the test of times and could solve all their problems. He decided to translate the Holy Quran into Persian. Even Fatwas were issued against him. He advised Muslim to study the Holy Quran with the help of Hadith.

Jihad
It is for this reason that he emphasises the necessity of the continuation of Jihad, he generally meant revolution (Inqilab). He strongly recommends the retention of the spirit of Jihad for all times to come. So long as this spirit, he says, was present in the Muslim, they remained victorious and were honoured everywhere, but no sooner it disappeared from them, they were humiliated and hated wherever they were. He tells that in the existing times, the Muslims should in no way neglect the sacred duty of Jihad as such neglect in turn amounts to the loss of abundant good.

Economic Reforms
He Presented some of the economic principles for governing a state:
1.Economic prosperity depends upon the hard worker of its labourers. These labourers are the backbone of our economy.
2. He advised Mughals to be conscious of their duties and not to indulge in the accumulation of wealth.
3. He underlined the importance of Economic Equality.
4.He said that such economic system is dangerous for the development of country where labourers, artisans and peasants failed to get their basic rights.

As a Social Reformer
Shah Waliullah directed the his teachings towards reorienting the Muslim society with the concepts of basic social justicse, removing socilal inequaliliteis and balancing the distribution of wealth. In his book, Hujjat-ullah-il-Balighah, he pinpointed the causes of chaos and disintegration of Muslim society. Following are the reasons:

1. Pressure on public treasury, the emoluments given to various people who render no service to the state.
2. Heavy taxation on peasants, merchants and workers with the result that tax evasion was rampant.
3. He also requested Mughal rulers to stop their corrupt activities and advised not to give lands to those who were not loyal to the state.

Political Movements
Finding no other way to get out of this critical situation, he wrote a letter to Ahmad Shah Abdali to attack India. Ahmad Shah Abdali made an all-out attack on India in 1174 H /1760-61 A.D. The battle took place in the plains of Panipat. The Marhatas, despite their great military might, suffered a crushing defeat. They could not rise for some time to come. This was a golden opportunity for the Muslims to avail of, but against all expectations they remained where they were.

“The most monumental task he performed was to translate the Quran from Arabic to Persian which was the language spoken by the Muslims at that time in India.”

Unity of Muslims
In this connection, he says, it is the duty of the entire Muslim nationals wherever they are to come nearer to each other, close their ranks, and participate jointly in the various fields of life as far as it is practicable. This had been his anxiety and his aim in life. He has spoken much on this topic under the heading IRTIFAQAT (socio-economics) in his Huj’atullah-ul-Balaghah in particular.

Shah Waliullah’s Work
The most monumental task he performed was to translate the Quran from Arabic to Persian which was the language spoken by the Muslims at that time in India. Apart from the Holy Quran, Shah Waliullah also wrote “Hujatul Baligdh”. This book explains how Islam was found suitable for all races, cultures and people of the world. “Al Fauzul Kabeer Fee Usool at Tafseer,” a booklet in Persian that follows his Persian translation of the Qur'an. It contains the nucleus of the Qur'an, the rules for interpretation, and interpretations of the Qur'an.

Impact on Muslim Society
Shah Waliullah was responsible for awakening in the community, the desire to win back its moral fervor and to maintain its purity. To rescue a community’s conscience, belief and faith from destruction was not small achievement. His teachings created new awareness in the minds of Muslims of the Sub-continent. He was realist in his political thinking. He had a clear vision of society, religion, ethics, morals and politics. He presented such modern and golden principles of economics and politics that are still in use. Shah Waliullah tried to synthesize the two streans of liberalism anf religious extremism of Akbar and Mujadid Alf Sani simultaneously. After his death in 1762, Shah Waliullah’s work continued both by the members of his family and by his close followers, the chief of whom was his son, Shah Abdul Aziz.
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Default Role of Sufis in the spread of Islam in subcontinent…

Role of Sufis in the spread of Islam in subcontinent…


Sufis were religious guides who aim for closer union with God.

Introduction:
The efforts rendered by the sufis in propagation of islam in the sub continent are unforgettable, innumerable splendid.
The spread of islam in the sub continent owes much to the efforts, and the personal examples of the muslim Sufis.
who made concerted and diligent efforts to reach out to the amasses and sensitize them about the teachings of the islam.
Most of these muslim saints migrated to india b/w eleventh and fourteenth century and devoted their lives for the cause of islam
sufis made islam popular in indian sub continent .
A large number of non muslims were impressed by the simple teachings, lofty character and fair treatment of the sufis and enterd in the fold of islam

The message of islam was spread across the length and breadth of the indian sub continent by the islamic mystics.


The Sufis Taught
Simple faith
The mercy of God
The nearness of God
The power of prayer
The beauties of faith
The duties and responsibilities in respect to other men
The pleasures of honest dealing
Fellow of feeling

The Sufi Orders or Silsilas
The following 4 silsilas are the most prominent in the Indian sub continent

1 Chishti Order:
Founded by Khwaja Abdul Chishti in Herat about 930 C.E.
Kwaja moin Ud Din Chishti implanted this silsila in India and settled in Ajmer, India

The Chishti Order is known for its emphasis on love, tolerance, and openness.
The most famous of the Chishti saints is
Hazrat Moinuddin Chishti (radi Allah anhu).
Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki (rehmatullah alaih) ,
Fariduddin Ganjshakar(rehmatullah alaih), PakPattan
Nizamuddin Auliya(rehmatullah alaih).
A number of Chishti family members are now living in Pakpattan and Bahawal Nagar, North of Punjab, Pakistan.

2, Suharwardi order:
Founded by Sheikh Shahbudin Suharwardi at Bghdad.
Introduced in India by Bahaudin Zakria.
Flourished in Multan 1182-1263
Hazrat Makhdoom jahaniya (R.A) belongs to this.

3. Naqshbandi order :
Popularized in India by efforts of Khwaja Baqi Bilah.
It was later carried by
Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi
Shah Wali U llah (R.A)

4.Qadria Order :
Founded by Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jillani in Baghdad (1077-1166)Introduced in India by Syed Muhammad Ghaus(R.A)
The spread of Islam in India owed little to the efforts Muslim rulers.
sufis. Whofaced innumerable hardships and dangers in their endeavors to spread the light of truth.
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Default Iqbal and the modern renaissance of islam

IQBAL AND THE MODERN RENAISSANCE OF ISLAM


Iqbal was a versatile genius. The myriad aspects of his personality like the sparkling glow of a big diamond, dazzle the eye. Some people are enamoured of the elegance of his style and the beauty of his art. Some others are impressed by the width of his knowledge and the depth of his thought. Still others seek light from his philosophical vision and political acumen. But, when a student of contemporary history looks at Iqbal he feels that although he was a great poet, a noble master of his art, an inspired thinker, a sharp politician and an illustrious philosopher, he was some thing more than all that, he was a pioneer of the Renaissance of Islam in this country. And herein lies his real greatness.

The Muslim society had long been undergoing a spell of degeneration. The disintegration which set in after the early Caliphate continued to gradually sap the foundations of the Islamic civilization and after a long period of rout and rally, the dark night of gloom and stupor was cast over it. The creative faculties were benumbed and the political power was lost. Although different reform movements grew and many leaders of thought endeavoured to awaken the Muslims from their slumber and infuse a new life in the Muslim society, little ice was actually broken. The most tragic part of it was that Islam no longer remained a dynamic politico-cultural force. It was reduced to the miserable and ineffective position of an amalgam of a few rites and rituals and was denied by its own followers its real role of a culture-producing factor. This was the unfortunate position when the British took hold of India. They very cleverly tried to impose the Western civilisation upon the people of this region. This gave birth to a plethora of new problems.
The political and economic supremacy of the West and the system of education which it imposed created a slavish mentality among the Muslims. They got engrossed in an inferiority complex. Even the last vestiges of their political confidence were destroyed. They were reduced to a very hectic existence.
Signs of a new awakening appeared on the horizon when Comrade, al-Hilal and Zamindar shook the Muslims from their stupor and stirred them to rise and do their duty. Khilafat Movement proved a great boon. It spurred the emotions of the Muslim India and encouraged it to enter the arena of political fight and cultural revolt. But the new awakening lacked in proper intellectual and philosophical foundations. It was Iqbal who laid these foundations. He was the true pioneer of the modern renaissance of Islam in India.

Iqbal's Diagnosis
Iqbal had a keen vision and a penetrating mind. He studied the conditions of the Muslim society and fully realised the ills that infested its body. He clearly understood the real impact of the Western culture and read the writing on the wall. He knew that a revolutionary change in the outlook of the Muslims was the greatest need of the hour. He warned them that if they ignored the great challenge of their time they will be eliminated from the surface of existence and be relegated to the dustbin of history.
Iqbal's diagonsis of the problem was that the long period of cultural disintegration and the influence of the modern West had destroyed the moorings of the Muslim society. Muslims declined because they left Islam and because they adopted an easy life of submissiveness and inactivity. Under the spell of the West, their confidence in their values was shaken and they began to ape the Western ways of life. Moreover, an inferiority complex developed in them and an estrangement between social life and the religious values ensued. The influence of non-Islamic Sufism further sapped the springs of activity and Muslims became what they were.
This was realistic appraisal of the situation and Iqbal harnessed all his energies to pull the Muslims out of this mire of degeneration.

New Attitude towards the West
First of all, Iqbal asked the Muslims to revise their attitude towards the West. He said that all was not good in Europe. He critically studied the fundamentals of the Western civilization and exposed their fallacies. He criticised those who blindly followed the West and asked them to use reason and vision. In his Lectures he said:

"The only course open to us is to approach modern knowledge with a respectful but INDEPENDENT attitude".

He further expressed the fear "that the dazzling exterior of the European culture may arrest our movement". He took the lid off the destructive potentialities of the Materialistic civilization of the West and warned against the dangers of atheism and Godlessness. How beautifully he says in "Pas Cheh Bayad Kard At Aqwam-i-Sharq":

آدمیت زار نالید از فرنگ
زندگی ہنگامہ بر چید از فرنگ
پس چہ باید کرد اے اقوام شرق
بازروشن می شود ایام شرق
در ضمیرش انقلاب آمد پدید
شب گذشت و آفتاب آمد پدید
یورپ از شمشیر خود بسمل فتاد
زیر گردوں رسم لادینی نہاد
گرگے اندر پوستین برۂ
ہر زمان اندر کمین برۂ
مشخلات حضرت انسان ازوست
آدمیت را غم پنہان ازوست
در نگاہش آدمی آب و گل است
کاروان زندگی بے منزل است


"Humanity is in agony at the hands of Europe
And life has lost its joyful tumult
What, then, is to be done, 0 peoples of the East,
That the lost glories of the Orient be regained?
A revolution has taken place in the depths of her being,
The night is passed and the sun has risen;
Europe lies smitten by its own sword
And has given irreligion to the World;
A wolf in lamb's skin,
Ever in ambush for the lamb,
It has brought trouble to humanity
And a growing grief.
Man in its eyes is but water and clay;
And life but a random caravan without a destination".

Iqbal gracefully declared that religion alone could extricate mankind out of the present Babel of social chaos and intellectual confusion.

He said:"And religion alone can ethically prepare the modern man for the burden of the great responsibility which the advancement of modern science necessarily involves and restore to him that attitude of faith which makes him capable of winning a personality here and retaining it hereafter. It is only by rising to a fresh vision of his origin and future, his whine and whither, that man will eventually triumph over a society motivated by an in‑human competition, and a civilization which has lost its spiritual unity by its inner conflict of religious and political values."

While pointing out the major weaknesses of the West and the hollowness of its materialism and secularism he did not look right of those real factors which have been responsible for Europe's success and grandeur. He says:

قوت مغرب نہ از چنگ و رباب
نے ز رقص دختران بے حجاب
نے ز سحر ساحران لا لہ روست
نے ز عریاں ساق و نے از قطع موست
محکمی او را نہ از لا دینی است
نے فروغش از خط لاطینی است
قوت افرنگ از علم و فن است
از ہمین آتش چراغش روشن است
حکمت از قطع و برید جامہ نیست
مانععلم و ہنر عمامہ نیست


"The Secret of the West's strength is not in the lute and guitar,
Nor in the promiscuous dancing of her daughters.
Nor in the charms of her bright-faced beauties,
Nor in bare shins, nor in bobbed hair.
Her strength is not from irreligiousness
Nor is her rise due to Latin script.
The strength of the West is due to knowledge and science,
Her lamp is alight from this fire only.
Knowledge does not depend on the style of your garments,
And a turban is no obstacle to the acquisition of knowledge." Thus Iqbal surveyed the contemporary ideological panorama and honestly presented the true achievements and the real failings of the Western civilization so that the blind imitation of it may be stopped. But he did not stop there. On the other hand he conclusively showed the indebtedness of the West to Islam in those things which led to its rise and growth and thus inspired in the Muslims a new confidence in their own values. He said:

حکمت اشیاء فرنگی زاد نیست
اصل او جز لذت ایجاد نیست
نیک اگر بین مسلمان زادہ است
ایں گہراز دست ما افتادہ است
چوں عرب اندر اروپا پر کشاد
علم و حکمت رابنا دیگر نہاد
دانہ آں صحرا نشیناں کاشتہ
حاصلش افرنگیاں برداشتہ
این پری از شیشۂ اسلاف ماست
باز صیدش کن کہ او از قاف ماست


"Science was not brought into being by the West;
In essence it is nothing but the delight that lies in creation;
If you ponder well, it is the Muslims who gave it life;
It is a pearl we dropped from our hands.
When the Arabs spread over Europe,
They laid new foundations of learning and science.
The seed was sown by these dwellers of the desert;
But the harvest was reaped by the West.
This spirit is from the flask of our own ancestors;
Bring this fairy back, for she hails from our own Caucasus."

Revolutionizing Thought and Action
Iqbal realised the need and the importance of the reconstruction of the Islamic thought. He knew that the modern attack on religion could be fought only with new weapons. The opponent will have to be met on his own ground. He also felt that Islam is a dynamic and revotionary movement but centuries of stagnation had laid some layers of dust over its religious thought. He stepped ahead to remove the dust and bathe the diamond clean so that it may again radiate light to the world groping about in the dark.
His lectures on 'Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam' are an attempt to fulfil this need. One may disagree with some of his interpretations but it is impossible to honestly deny the revolutionary message these lectures contain and the tremendous influence they left on the mind of Muslim India.
But Iqbal had a still higher mission in view. He was not a mere philosopher who could feel satisfied with the simple intellectual exposition of the ideology of Islam. He wanted to stir every fibre of a nation that had fallen in slumber and to arouse it to play its rightful role in the fashioning of the future. In his two masnavies, Asrar-e-Khudi' and Rumuz-e-Baikhudi, he delineated the factors of individual and social growth. Iqbal discussed the causes of millat's decline and threw light on the alien influences which disrupted its body-politic. Iqbal asked the Muslims to return to the real message of Allah and his Prophet.

The fundamentals of Islam, he said, were Tawheed, Risalat, Akhirat and Jihad. Tawheed provides for all members of the society a basis for unity of thought and unity of action. It is the greatest revolutionary force under the sun.

در جہان کیف و کم گردید عقل
پے بہ منزل برد از توحید عقل
اہل حق را رمز توحید از بر است
دراتی الرحمن عبداًمضمر است
تا ز اسرار تو بہ نماید ترا
امتحانش از عمل باید ترا
دین ازو حکمت ازو آئین ازو
زور ازو قوت ازو تمکن ازو
عالماں را جلوہ اش حیرت دہد
عاشقان را بر عمل قدرت دہد
پست اندر سایہ اش گردد بلند
خاک چوں اکسیر گردد ارجمند


The Mind, astray in this determinate world,
First found the path way to its distant goal.
By faith in Tawheed (Unity of God); what other home Should
bring the helpless wanderer to rest?
Upon what other shore should Reason's barque
Touch however? All men intimate with truth
The secret of Tawheed have by heart,
Which is implicit in the sacred worlds:
He comes into the Merciful, a slave.
In action let faith's potency be tried,
That it may guide thee to thy secret powers:
From it derive religious wisdom, law,
Unfailing vigour, power, authority.
Its splendour doth amaze the learned mind,
But giveth unto lover's force to act;
The lowly in its shadow reacheth high,
And worthless scum becomes like alchemy.
He dwelt upon the basic concepts of Islam in detail and showed the potentialities of the faith. His words gave a new message of life to a nation "forgotten so long, neglected so long".

Iqbal's poetry and thought stirred the Muslim India and inspired it to rise to the occasion and play its rightful role in the remaking of the world. After animating the nation with a new spirit, he also gave it a new concrete ideal to achieve in the political field so that the new energies that were released could be harnessed to build a homeland for Islam. This ideal was PAKISTAN.
Iqbal laboured hard to strengthen and foster the belief that Muslims are a nation, an ideological community and that it is a dictate of their faith to establish a state, a society and a culture in the light of the principles given by the Quran and the Sunnah. He gave sober thought to the political problem of the Muslim India and after years of reflection suggested the idea of Pakistan in his Presidential Address to the Annual Session of All India Muslim League in 1930 wherein he said, "The life of Islam as a Cultural force in this country very largely depends on its centralisation in a specified territory. This centralisation of the most living portion of the Muslims of India .... will eventually solve the problem of India as well as of Asia. "This was essential so that the Muslim India may become "entitled to full and free development on the lines of its own culture and tradition." And in a letter to the Quaid-e-Azam he wrote in 1937, a year before his demise:
"A seperate federation of Muslim provinces reformed on the lines I have suggested above is the only course by which we can secure a peaceful India and save Muslims from the domination of non-Muslims. Why should not the Muslims of North West India and Bengal be considered as nations entitled to self-determination just as other nations in India and outside India are."
This was a pointer to the future. Nation followed the lead given by Iqbal and after great effort and sacrifice, Pakistan became a reality and inaugurated the new era of Muslim renaissance.

Iqbal's message was a message of action. He was a pioneer of Islamic Renaissance in this sub-continent and herein lies his real significance. We have very briefly outlined the great and gigantic task he performed. But we could present only a few glimpses of his work, for you cannot bottle sunshine. Let us end this study with those immortal words of this great revolutionary which moved a nation and worked as a clarion call:
"Vision without power does bring moral elevation but cannot give a lasting culture. Power without vision tends to become destructive and inhuman. Both must combine for the spiritual expansion of humanity."

اہل حق را زندگی ز قوت است
قوت ہر ملت از جمعیت است
رائے بے قوت ہمہ مکر و فسوں
قوت بے رائے جہل است و جنوں


"The standard-bearers of truth live by being strong;
The strength of every nation lies in unity;
Wisdom without worldly power is but a fraud and a myth;
And worldly power without wisdom is folly and madness."
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Default Efforts For Renaissance of Islam and Muslim Society

Efforts For Renaissance of Islam and Muslim Society

a) Personalities:

ü Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi (1564---1624)
ü Shah Waliullah (1703---1762)
ü Syed Ahmad Shakeel (1786---1831)

b) Institutions:

Ø Aligarh
Ø Deoband
Ø Nadua
Ø Anjuman Hamayat-i-Islam
Ø Islamia Collage Peshawar.

Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Hazrat Mujadad Alf-Sani):

Introduction:
History itself is an evidence of the fact that whenever Islam came at any danger by any agencies from its enemies or from ideology, it was saved by such personalities, who through their spiritual power not only saved it but gave it a new life. Such is the story of Sheikh Ahmad of Sirhind, popularly known as Mujadad Alf-Sani (reviver of Islam during the second millennium) who was confronted by the same challenges. Islam was under great danger, its future unpredictable, its spirit deteriorated and its teachings misinterpreted. Akbar’s policy of ‘divine faith’ and religious syncretism welcomed the anti-Islamic ideologies; at this hour of turmoil Mujadad Alf-Sani came in front to restore and revive the glory of Islam.

Evils of Muslim Society:

The revival movement of Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi crusaded against all evils prevailing in the socio-politico-religious sphere of the community of India in the time of Akbar. Religiously, his movement became an antithesis of Akbar’s Divine Faith and his Philosphy as irreconcilable to Akbar’s reconciliation with Hinduism and Christianity.

Socially, the Muslims community had become a victim to adulteration with socio-religious practices of Hinduism. The enforcement of Din-e-Elahi badly affected the Muslim fundamentalism and their spirits towards Islam.

Politically, the Akbar’s concept of sovereignty such as Zil-e-Elahi made another attack to Islamic concepts of sovereignty of Allah and the practice of prostration before the emperor demoralized the Islamic concept of the supremacy of God.

Spiritually, and ideologically, the Muslims were discomfited and scattered the result of these was:

i) Muslim society was saddening with un-Islamic practices and trends. Under the Hindu influence a firm and widespread belief in Karamat (miracles of saints) had developed in the society which misguided the people.
ii) In Sufism many means of developing magical and supernatural power alien to Islam had been developed. The mysteries and Sufis of those days openly divided the authenticity of Shariah. They even proudly manifested their indifference towards the Sunnah.
iii) Ulamas the theologians ceased to refer to the Quran and Hadith in their commentarial and considered jurisprudence as the only religious knowledge.
iv) Akbar promoted Hinduism by marrying Hindu ladies and by giving high posts to Rajputs and Hindus in his court.

Sheikh Ahmad’s revival efforts:

Ø He sent a number of his disciples in all directions to preach true Islam. He asked them to emphasize on Ittiba-i-Sunnah and the commandments of Shariah in their sermons and preaching. The work was vigorously pursued in India and neighboring countries.
Ø He also began correspondence with the prominent scholars of all Muslim countries in his letters he emphasized and explained the religious doctrines and out great stress on the Ittiba-i-Sunnah.
Ø Sheikh Ahmad was greatly opposed to the concepts of atheism and openly denounced un-Islamic practices. He emphasized on the concepts of Tauheed.
Ø He exposed the fallacy of Din-i-Elahi and came out to curb the influence of its satanic creed.
Ø He declared that the mysticism without Shariah was misleading and denounced those Ulamas who had questioned the authenticity of Shariah.
Ø He labored diligently to settle the differences between the scholars and the mysteries.
Ø He initiated the leading nobles near the emperor into his disciplines and through them exerted and influences to bring about a change in the life of the court. He was able to enlist Abdur Rahim Khan-e-Khanam, Khan-i-Azam, Mirza Azia and Mufti Sardar Jahan.
Ø In the time of Jahangir, Sheikh Ahmad was successful to a great extent to extract a solemn undertaking from the Muslims that they would not obey any orders repugnant to Islam.
Ø He persuaded Muslims to adopt simple habits in the light of Islam and Sunnah. He revealed the importance of Namaz and fasting.


Wahdat-ul-Wajid and Whdat-ul-Shahud:

The Philosphy of Wahdat-ul-Wajid was presented by some Sufis of Akbar’s era. They believed that there was no living difference between the man and his creator God and both, individual and God are not separated by each other. They also advocated that every particle of the universe represented the presence of God and therefore, the worship of God’s creatures amounted to worship of God.

Sheikh Ahmad openly negated this Philosphy and declared it as ultra vises to the principles of Islam. He presented his Philosphy of Whdat-ul-Shahud which meant that the creator and creatures were two different and separate entities.


Sheikh Ahmad imprisoned:

Sheikh Ahmad raised voice against the practice of prostration in the court of Jahangir. He was imprisoned in the fort of Gwabor but remained confident. After one year Jahangir feeling resentful, released him and honored him to be his religious advisor. This auspicious rank helped him to mould Emperor’s life according to Shariah. This provided him an opportunity to preach his views.


Sheikh Ahmad and Two Nation Theory:

In order to popularize Islam, a number of Muslim reformers adopted a liberal point of view in their preaching. They however were successful to attract a large number of people towards Islam but at the same time this liberal strategy gave rise to the concept of joint nationalism. This trend proved injuries to the separate and distinct national image of the Muslims.

Sheikh Ahmad put end to this concept and negated the Philosphy of Wahdat-ul-Wajood. He labored to keep alive the national and the religious identity of the Muslims. He was a stanch advocate of Muslim separatism and adopted very stern attitude towards Hindus. He wanted Jizia to be re-imposed on Hindu temples.


Mujadad Influence on the history of Muslim India:

Sheikh Ahmad, the most forceful and original thinker produced by Muslim India before the days of Shah Waliullah and Iqbal, occupies a high place not only in Muslim India but in the entire Muslim world. He was the first man who could be called as a propounded of Muslim Ummah. The swing of balance from heterodoxy was in considerable measure, due to the influence and teaching of Mujadad Alf-Sani. The rein position of ‘Jizya’ on Hindu subjects during the reign of Aurangzeb was a far reaching result of his work.


Conclusion:
The movement of Mujadad Alf-Sani restored Shariah and Islam became the symbol of unity. His revival movement opened new avenues towards pan-Islamic. Sheikh Ahmad, according to Iqbal “a call back to prophet hood became the pioneer of religious nationalism. It was under the influence of this movement that the future movements of reforms and revival came to be represented by Shah Waliullah and Syed Ahmad Shakeel which ultimately made their head way to the destination of Pakistan movement.



Shah Waliullah:

Introduction:
The movement of Shah Waliullah was the first of its kind in the sub-continent which aimed mainly to socio-politico-religio and economic reformation of the degenerated Muslims communities.

The departure of Aurangzeb from the scene of Mughal Empire caste a havoc not only for the future of Mughal Empire but also for the future of Islam and Muslims of the India.


Causes of the Muslim decline:

1. Nobles of Humayiun (Iranian).
2. Petticoat government influence.
3. Lack of understanding religion on its proper perspective and time spirit.
4. Emergent of rich class of feudal lords and nobles sank.
5. Reversion from the principles of Khilafat of kingship.
6. Sectarian conflicts.
7. Money obtained from the exchequer by those who do not perform any corresponding duty – people such as Ulamas and soldiers.
8. Heavy taxation of peasants, merchants and workers. The prosperity of a country depends on light taxes.

To address the situation, Shah Waliullah aimed at a moral, social and political regeneration of Muslims in the true spirit of Islam so that ideally equitable social system could be brought in vogue.


Religious efforts:

I) Crusade against sectarian:

The entire Muslim community was rift from top to bottom the noliles grouped themselves into Turani and Srani parties – which were euphemisms and citizen also were affected. Shah Waliullah tried to wipe out differences based on religious convictions. He wrote Izalat-ul-Khifa and Rhilafat-e-Khulafat to remove misunderstandings between Shiah and Sunnis.

II) Translation of Quran into Persian:

The differences on the minute details of interpretation were magnified into disputes. These controversies on minor issue tended to take the mind of the believers from the fundamentals and instead of uniting them, created division in their ranks. He emphasized on the fundamentals of Islam. He introduced the people once again to the main sources of Islam-e-doctrine and law. In order to make it understand able to all he translated Quran into Persian.

III) Balance between four schools of thought:

He wrote Al Insaf Fi Bayan Sahab Al Ikhtilaf in order to create a balance between the four schools; Hanafi – Hanbali – Shafi and Malike. He was also opposed to limiting the universality of the applications of the injunctions of the Holy Quran.


IV) School for Hadith:
He established a school for study of Hadith. He selected Imam Malik’s ALMAWATA as the most authentic of all collections of Hadith and took steps to popularize its study.


V) Reintroduced Ijtihad:
It had been established by the orthodox circles that after the final codification of Islamic law by the four great jurists, the doors of interpretation were closed for ever. He denounced this principle and adopted Ijtihad richly.


VI) Controversy between Sufis and Ulamas:
Shah Waliullah tried to reconcile the controversy between Sufis and Ulamas about Wahdat-ul-Wajid and Whdat-ul-Shahud.

VII) Social – moral regeneration:
It was not enough to remove doctrinal differences among the Muslims since they were plunged in a moral crisis of grave dimensions. He presented Islam is a rational manner and urged the Muslim masses to mould their lives according to the teachings of Islam.


VIII) Economics:
Shah Waliullah pointed out that economics played a vital role in the social life of human beings. He raised his voice for economic equilibrium, removal of inequalities and equal distribution of wealth. He appealed higher classes to realize their responsibilities towards the nation. He was against heavy taxes and accumulation of wealth.

Importance of Jihad:
He educated the Muslim soldiers on importance of Jihad and asked them to go for Jihad for Islam.


Political services:
Apart from his religious services, Shah Waliullah provided leadership to the Muslims in the political field. He came out with his great wisdom and foresight to create political awakening in the Muslims of India. The rise of Marhattas and Sikhs had posed serious problems to the Muslim rulers. The Mughal rulers were no more in a position to with hold the supremacy of the Muslim rule which was gravely jeopardized by the emergence of Marhattas and Sikhs and other non-Muslim forces. Marhattas raided Delhi, the capital of the Mughal Empire. The Marhattas wanted to crash the Muslim rule former.

Shah Waliullah came up to tackle this precarious situation. He had rightly noticed that if the Marhattas were not checked effectively, the political power of Muslims would disappear for ever. He wrote letters to the noble Muslim leaders and informed them of the critical situation hanging on the head of the Mughal rule. He asked for military assistance and was successful in bringing some Muslim leaders sound. He eventually won over Najib-u-Daola and Siraj-u-Daula against Marhattas.

However, the Muslim chiefs were unable to face Marhattas. The resources were inadequately to crush the Marhattas. Shah Waliullah, therefore, looked towards Ahmad Shah Abdali who came in India and inflicted a crushing defeat on Marhattas at the third battle of Paanipat in 1761. The victory blasted the Marhatta’s power and paved way for revival of Islam in India.


Conclusion:
The movement of political as well as spiritual regeneration did not die with Shah Waliullah. His talented son Shah Abdul Aziz and his worthy disciplines and successors strove for the realization of his mission. The echo of the third battle of Paanipat was heard in the battle of Balakot. Both are the landmarks of the same struggle.


Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barailvi:

Introduction:
The name of Syed Ahmad Shaheed Barailvi caries great importance with regard to the revival of Islam in the history of sub-continent. Syed Ahmad Shaheed picked up the course of the two pronged struggle aimed at the purification of the Muslim society and the destruction of British power in India. His approach to freedom was based on armed struggle against the foreign and non-Muslim forces.

He was greatly impressed by the teachings of Shah Waliullah and was a stanch disciple of his son Shah Abdul Aziz. From the very beginning he had an inclination towards becoming a soldier. During his services of Nawab Amir Khan of Tonk, he learnt military discipline and strategy which made him a great military commander in the years ahead.

He wrote Sirat-e-Mustakim with the help of his great disciples Shah Ismail Shaheed and Maulana Abdul Hayee. The work is an excellent summary of Philosophies, doctrines and reforms of Shah Waliullah.


Preparation of Jihad against Sikhs:
Syed Ahmad was extremely dismayed to see the decline of the Muslims in their religious and ideological commitments. He earnestly desired to see the restoration of the supremacy of Islam in India. The main objective before Syed Ahmad was to establish a state which was based in Islamic principles.

In the time of Syed Ahmad, Punjab was ruled by the Sikh ruler Ranjeet Singh who was regarded as an autocratic despot. The Muslims heavily suffered under his rule and were denied lively and freedom of worship. The NWEP had also fallen into Sikh regime. The Holy places of Muslims were turned into temples. Azan was forbidden in mosques.

Syed Ahmad left for Mecca in 1821 along with Maulana Ismail Shaheed and Maulana Abdul Hayee and their followers to perform Hajj. He returned after two years and started preparing for Jihad as he had gathered a large number of followers on his return.


Declaration of war:
Syed Ahmad believed, if Punjab and NWFP were liberated from Sikhs, the Muslims would regain their position. He therefore, picked up Punjab to start his Jihad movement. He directed Shah Ismail and Maulana Abdul Hayee with 6000 followers to march from Rae Baraily. He himself set out via other parts of Punjab to invite people to wage Jihad against Sikhs.

Syed Ahmad reached Noshehra in December, 1826 and established his headquarter. He sent a message to Ranjeet Singh to embrace Islam or to be ready to face the Mujahideen. Ranjeet Singh turned down the offer and expressed a high degree of rage against Muslims and Islam.

Syed Ahmad started Jihad by challenging the Sikh army at Akora on December 21, 1826. it was a successful mission and heavy loses were inflicted upon Sikh forces. Mujahideen fought second battle at Hazro which too was a great success.

This Jihad movement got immense popularity. Many Pathan chiefs joined Syed Ahmad Sahib and took an oath of allegiance at the land of Syed Ahmad. Yar Muhammad, the Governor of Peshawar also joined Syed Ahmed but later involved in a conspiracy against Syed Ahmad and tried to poison him. Ultimately he joined Sikhs against Syed Shaheed. He was killed in 1829 in an encounter with Mujahideen.

Syed Ahmad set out for Kashmir and Peshawar. French General saved Peshawar Syed Ahmad, reached Hazara and attacked Sikh forces but this assault was repulsed. Syed Ahmad again attacked Peshawar and occupied in 1830.


Enforcement of Shariah:

After occupying Peshawar Syed Ahmad paid attention towards introduction of Shariah. Syed Ahmad was declared Khilifa. The establishment of Islamic government reduced influence of tribal chiefs. He introduced social reforms in November 1831; Syed Ahmad withdrew from Peshawar in favor of Sultan Muhammad Khan who promised to pay a fixed amount to the Mujahideen.

Battle of Balakot:
After relinquishing Peshawar Syed Ahmad went to Balakot where they were attacked by huge Sikh army with sophisticated weapons under the commitment of General Shir Singh. Syed Sahib, Shah Ismail and many other laid their lives while fighting. The Jihad movement did not die after Syed Sahib. But it greatly lacked the leadership.


Haji Shariatullah (1787-1840):

Fraizi Movement:

Introduction:
The Muslim Sufis spread the light of Islam in Bengal in 13th and 14th centuries. In the beginning, Bengal was very much receptive to the call of Islam but thereafter there had been a strong Hindu revival which immensely infused a new religion spirit among the Hindus. This Hindu revival converted many arcos to Hinduism and also made its impact on the Muslim society. There was wide-scale ignorance prevalent among the Muslim masses about Islam resulting in the emergence of Hindu beliefs and practices in the society.


Haji Shariatullah:

The Muslim revivalism in Bengal began in the 19th century which was to put an end to the Muslim isolation and exploitation. The person who came forward to stir the dormant faith if the Bengali Muslims was Haji Shariatullah.

Haji Shariatullah left for the Hijaz in 1799 at very youth age of 18. After a long stay of twenty years he returned from Mecca in 1820. During his stay in Arabia, he was greatly impressed by the doctrines of Sheikh Muhammad Abdul Wahab who had initiated Wahabi movement in Arabia.

Haji Shariatullah began his reform movement known as Fraizi Movement in the center of Bengal. This movement was started as a reaction to the anti-Muslim policy of the British. The Fraizi movement emphasized on the performing of Fraiz, religious duties imposed by the God and his Prophet (PBUH).

Haji Shariatullah was deadly against the false and superstitious beliefs which have arisen in the Muslim society due to long contact with Hindus. He utterly disliked the expressions of Pir and Murid. He strongly forbade the laying on hands at the time of accepting a person into discipleship which had crept into Muslim society.

His movement brought the Muslim peasantry together against the cruel exploitation by the Hindu Zamindars. His disciples and followers blindly took him as competent and able to pull them out of crisis and despair. He declared Jihad against the infidels as inevitable and termed the sub-continent Daru-ul-Harab where the offering of Friday prayers was unlawful.

The Fraizi movement of Haji Shariatullah injected a great deal of confidence among the Muslim masses. He continued his religious preaching and fight against the non-Islamic forces till his death in 1840.


Dadu Miyan:

Haji Shariatullah was succeeded by his son Dadu Miyan, his real name was Mohsinuddin Ahmad. Dadu Miyan became very popular in the districts of Dacca, Faridpur and Nokhali etc. When Dadu Miyan assumed the leadership of Fraizi movement he divided the whole of Bengal into circle. Dadu Miyan vehemently opposed the levying of taxes by landlords. He declared that the earth belonged to the Almighty Allah and that no one could inherit it or impose taxes upon it. Dadu Miyan believed in equality of the rich and the poor. For the amelioration of the Muslim peasantry he had established his own state where he used to administer justice by setting disputes and by punishing the wrong doers.

The Hindu Zamindars dreaded hi most and conspired to check the spread of his movement. He was harassed all his life and was put in jail time and again on frivolous charges.

He died in 1862 in Dacca. The Fraizi movement under Haji Shariatullah and Dadu Miyan cultivated a great deal of political awareness among the Muslims of Bengal and particularly among the Muslim peasantry who put a formidable resistance against the Hindu landlords and the British rulers.


Aligarh Movement and Sir Syed (1817-98)

Introduction:
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan - a prophetic revivalist and a man of predicting analysis who emerged at the time when Muslims were under harrow of socio-economico-religio-political circumstances.

Since the war of independence the Muslims of India were facing strange circumstances and passing a miserable life. :Although both Hindus and Muslims fought for liberation but the heavy hand of the British fell more on Muslims than on the Hindus”, says Jawaharlal Nehru in his autobiography. The consequences of 1857 war had reduced Muslims to a backward nation – education was their bleakness, politics was an enigma, and religion was an obsession. In this darkest hour of the Muslim national life, the role of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan became multidimensional since he had to provide strength to the Muslims of India from all the frontiers. To him education was the foundation on which to build the super-structure of his religious, social and political ideas. He considered education to be the panacea for all ills of his community.


Sir Syed’s crusade for the Muslim uplift:

The great leader set himself to the gigantic task of alleviating the miserable toll of the Muslims community. His task was by no means an easy one. On one hand he had to convince the British authorities that nobody ever panned the mucking and that at any rate, the Muslims responsibility for the mass butcheries was negligible and on the other hand to dispel the fanatical belief of the Muslims that western education was inimical to their faith.

Educational Work:

The educational set back of Muslims was because of the fact that they were inimical to western education. Learning English and acquiring western knowledge went against their pride and they thought that the education saturated with Christianity might corrupt their views.

Sir Syed intellectually fought against all tendencies and attitudes with daring initiative. He provoked a new psyche in their minds and brains. He washed their brains through his speeches, articles and pamphlets. Keeping in view the modern education in his mind, Sir Syed established a scientific society in Ghazipur in 1864. He opened schools in Ghazipur and Muradabad. Scientific society later on developed in Aligarh scientific society. It translated a number of books in local languages. His visit to England in 1869 was purely to study English education institutions. On his return he published a monthly journal Tehzeeb-ul-Akhlaq to bring home to the Muslims the need for liberalizing the religious thoughts. Finally in 1875 he laid the foundation of Mohammedan Anglo Oriental Collage at Aligarh after the model of Oxford and Cambridge, which converted to a university after his death. The college was the birth place of Aligarh movement and remained the center of Muslim political activities throughout the history of Pakistan movement. The foundation of Mohammedan Educational Conference in 1866 intensified Aligarh movement and promoted education and social reformation of Muslims.


Religious reformation:

In religious sphere, he stood as a rational Philosopher. He argued that the revealed truth could be understood best through reasons. The revelations of physical success could not be ignored in the understanding of religion. He attempted to rationally interpret the Islamic ideas and concepts through the dictates of modern times. In this way he bridged the gulf between traditional pattern of religious thinking and the modes of present thinking. Thus he engineered an attitude of rapprochement between the traditions and neo-Islamism. Because of his rational ideas he was changed infidel or heathen. Nevertheless his services to the cause of Islam cannot be denied. His detailed reply in the forum of essays to the blasphemous book of William Moor “Life of Muhammad” was a great service to Islam. His essays were translated into Urdu and were published with some additions under the title of Khutbat-i-Ahdia. He wrote exegesis of Quran.

He criticized the blind followers of Islam which had given way to unwise conventions, corrupt customs and evils. He felt the necessity of Ijtihad in every age. He opposed the conventional types of piri-muridi and regarded it as the fountain of many evils.

Social services:

In the dimension of social life he stood an ardent advocate of simplicity and austerity, honesty and integrity. In the second half of 19th century, Muslims of the sub-continent were suffering from different social evils like illiteracy, disunity, jealousy, greed, pride and worship of past and indifference to present etc. Sir Syed suggested means and ways to do away with these evils.

He advised the Muslims to take agriculture and trade as profession and in order to solve their problem they should use their own wisdom and dispend on themselves. He stressed on the need of a national dress and he was the first who introduced it in Aligarh College.

In his celebrated magazine Tehzeeb-ul-Akhlaq he preached the virtues of social drive from western social life. He taught the people to accept what was sound and attractive in European manners and social life. The magazine played a very important role in improving the morality of the Muslims. In the magazine Akhtam-i-Taam-i-Ahle Kitab, Sir Syed discussed the etiquettes of eating and dining in Islam and made it cleat that it was not un-Islamic to eat with a nation – Christians who were the bracers of the Holy Book.

Political services:

Sir Syed had perceived with his far sightedness that if the existing tension between Muslims and the British continued, Hindus would get advantage of it and as a result Muslims would be lost in the darkness of obscurity for ever. Thus to promote understanding between the rulers and the ruled Sir Syed wrote a bold pamphlet on “the causes of the Indian revolt” whose pith and soul was that ‘the estrangement between government and the gourd let to the Indian military and hence the Muslims were not responsible for the revolt of 1857. In the “Loyal Mohammedans of India”, he described the sincere services of Muslims to the British government and defends them against the charges sedition and disloyalty. He also established “British Indian Association” under the same purpose. He pleaded for the inclusion of the Indians in the legislative council in order to represent the views of their fellow beings.

Sir Syed was the first man who’s prophetic firstly visions the facts of the Two Nation Theory. He said that in India, Hindus and Muslims were two different nations, having their civilization, culture, history, traditions and everything else quite different from each other. To him since Hindus and Muslims were two separate nations, so their interests on political forum cannot be evolved together. In his view, the Muslims in choosing their political priority should profess their loyalty to British first by keeping themselves aloof from the Congress and should depend on their own strength. He did not believe in western democracy, which gave authority to majority, in a country like India where Muslims were in minority. He therefore, proposed the ideas of nomination and opposed the participation of Muslims in Congress. Sir Syed, then unconsciously performed ground work for a separate homeland for them in the sub-continent.

To conclude his political activities gave great strength to Muslims. He advocated the aloofness of the Muslims from politics since they were educationally and economically backward. To him, their involvement in politics should be natured by the time until they have brought them elves up to the level of Hindus in prosperity and modern education

Conclusion:

Sir Syed’s contributions to Muslim renaissance in the India were unrivalled and unparallel. He included self-confidence in his people. The Muslims were rendering a cloud; he removed from them the stigma of disloyalty and tried to rehabilitate them with their rulers. He gave them a modus operandi which was not to their present but to their future. His greatness lies that he struggled to get Muslims out of frustration and provided a firm foundation on which those who came later could build with confidence.


Critical analysis:

Nevertheless his political Philosphy of co-operation with British had serious limitations, his advocacy of uncritical acceptance of western education and thought could not provide a firm foundation for building up a nation with a well defined entity, and his concept of religious truth was narrow and un-philosophical, yet at the time when he advocated these ideas, they were opportune and saved the Muslims from economic educational and Philosophical inertia and from stagnation and even annihilation.


“People say Sir Syed set up a college ,May, he made a nation” (Dr. Moulvi Abdul Haq)
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Default Pakistan-India Water Dispute

Pakistan-India Water Dispute

Scarcity of water is a huge problem faced by many countries of the world, especially the developing ones. The effects of environmental degradation and poor management of available water resource have made water one of the scarcest resources in poor economies. As a result, there is a struggle for this resource and this sometimes leads to conflicts. The India-Pakistan water conflict arises from struggle for scarce resources. Growing scarcity of water resources, increasing population and poor management of water resources in India and Pakistan has resulted in an increasing demand for water resources.


History of Dispute

The history of water dispute between India and Pakistan is not new. Analysts are of the opinion that highly sensitive and charged water issues between Pakistan and India have emerged out of the way the 1947 partition lines were drawn. A seemingly minor change, but one with far-reaching consequences, was introduced in the partition map, in violation of all principles laid down by the British government. It came about at the very last minute when, upon the insistence of the Indian leaders, the partition award turned over to India three vital districts that were originally allocated to Pakistan; with the sole objective of providing India with access to Kashmir. The three remaining western rivers on which Pakistan now relies upon all originate in or pass through Kashmir before entering Pakistan. In other words, India, after having obtained the waters of the three eastern rivers through Indus Waters Treaty is now trying to take control of three western rivers as well.

The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) signed in Karachi on September 19, 1960, by India's Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, Pakistan's President Muhammad Ayub Khan and Mr W.A.B. Illif of the World Bank has shown a remarkable endurance and resilience in withstanding the jolts of the Indo-Pak turbulent relations. The treaty allocates the water of the three western rivers of the Indus Basin to Pakistan, while the eastern rivers have been assigned to India for utilisation. The treaty allows India to tap the hydroelectric potential of the Pakistan specific rivers; with the important proviso that generation of power should not interfere with the timings and the quantity of flow of waters into Pakistan.

Over the years, India built its irrigation system which could serve the needs of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. On the other side, the fact that the source of the rivers of the Indus basin were in India resulted in fear of droughts and famine in Pakistan.

Geography of the Conflict

The Indus River originates in the Tibetan plateau, making its 3,200km journey southwards along the entire length of Pakistan, before emptying into the Arabian Sea at Thatta. The river basin is divided between Pakistan, which has about 60 per cent of the catchment area, India with about 20 per cent, Afghanistan with 5 per cent and around 15 per cent in Tibet. The two major riparians, Pakistan and India, have extensively dammed the Indus River to provide for irrigation and hydro-electricity.

The Indus has five main tributaries. The Jhelum, the largest of these, originates in the Valley of Kashmir. The Chenab, a second tributary, flows through the Jammu region of the state of Jammu and Kashmir before entering the Indian state of Punjab. The remaining three tributaries (Ravi, Sutlej and Beas) either originate or flow through India's state of Himachal before entering Indian Punjab.

Present Status

Currently, India, in clear violation of Indus Waters Treaty and international laws and norms, is in the process of building a number of dams on the Jhelum and Chenab Rivers such as the Kishenganga, Dal Huste, Sawalkot etc. The Indus Waters Treaty allows India to harness the hydropower potential of the Jhelum and Chenab Rivers, as long as it does not reduce or delay the supply to Pakistan. India therefore maintains that its projects are in compliance with the Treaty and sees no conflict with Pakistan on these issues. This is posing a serious threat to the agriculture and hydel projects of Pakistan.

India has 33 projects, including controversial Kishanganga, at various stages of completion. Although no single dam along the rivers controlled by the treaty may affect Pakistan's access to water, the cumulative effect of these projects could give India the ability to store enough water to limit the supply to Pakistan at crucial moments in the growing season. The Indus, in Pakistan, is the only river system supporting the country, where more than 92 per cent of the land is arid or semi-arid. In India, it is one of two main river systems supporting the country's northwest: Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan.

John Briscoe, a subcontinental water expert, former World Bank senior water expert, and currently a professor at Harvard University, recognised Pakistan's unhappy position in the following words:

“This is a very uneven playing field. The regional hegemon is the upper riparian and has all the cards in its hands.”


The Way Out

In order to ensure that India and Pakistan both benefit from the rivers, both countries should implement policies which favour their mutual use of the rivers. Pakistan should allow India to use rivers which complement its goals and vice versa, as long as national interests are not jeopardised.

Dialogue

Dialogue is the most effective way in which the dispute between India and Pakistan over water can be resolved amicably. Other measures such as aggression or violence will only lead to losses among both countries. It is imperative that the issue is sorted soon in order to prevent further conflict or bloodshed which may occur as a result of the conflict.

Development of a New Treaty

Since the 1960 Treaty has proved to be ineffective in solving the current dispute, both Pakistani and Indian leaders should hold dialogue and develop a new treaty to break the present stalemate. Various issues which have been brought under consideration are relatively complex and may have been unforeseeable when developing the initial treaty. It is, therefore, necessary to alter the treaty to reflect the current concerns while safeguarding the interests of both countries. Since these rivers under consideration flow in both countries, it is clear that India and Pakistan are dependent on one other and none can exist independently.

Water Conservation

Water conservation is a problem which both Pakistan and India face. However, Pakistan appears to have greater problems as far as water conservation is concerned. Water conservation is important since it will enable both countries reduce reliance on the rivers, which are scarce resources and instead take advantage of rainfall and sea water to mitigate the citizens' needs. Pakistan loses millions of cubic water to the sea due to lack of water conservation initiatives. Water conservation will enable Pakistan have more water for use in agriculture, and ensure that citizens have access to water. It will also reduce disputes which arise from the use of rivers by India and Pakistan.

Conclusion

The Pakistan-India water dispute has lasted for several decades. This dispute is attributed to the Indus Waters Treaty which set out how Pakistan and India would share water resources. One of the clauses was that India would not construct a dam in rivers which belonged to Pakistan without express permission from Pakistan. However, India flouted this rule by constructing a hydro-electric plant in Doda district along Chenab River without due consultation from Pakistan. Pakistan saw this as an economic and political threat since it depended on waters from this river for agricultural purposes.
However, this conflict has adversely affected both countries by limiting development through cooperation. This conflict may also degenerate into war, especially if a terrorist activity occurs as a result of the conflict or if leaders intentionally provoke each other in a bid to resolve the dispute. This may lead to a regional war and may cause many fatalities.

There are various ways in which the dispute may be resolved and one of the most effective ways is dialogue and mediation. Another means is the re-negotiation of the Treaty. Since it was concluded many decades ago, and it overlooked certain societal changes which occur over time, a new treaty which replaces the current one may be developed by Pakistan and India.

Finally, water conservation is an important policy which should be embraced by Pakistan and India to reduce expenses on water costs and prevent the depletion of the water resource. These measures should be embraced by all countries with resources, since they will prevent future problems or conflicts which are associated with possession of resources.
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Default Lahore Resolution & the Partition of Subcontinent

Lahore Resolution & the Partition of Subcontinent

23 March, 1940 is a milestone in the political history of the Subcontinent as on this very day, the Lahore Resolution, which served as an impetus to the creation of Pakistan, was passed.
This resolution gained a wide currency and importance when the Hindu press disdainfully declared it “Pakistan Resolution.” The motive behind this act of Hindu-dominated press was to make this resolution controversial.

Introduction
Hindus became hostile to the Lahore Resolution despite the fact that the very word 'Pakistan' was not even mentioned anywhere in the Lahore Resolution. The 'Daily Tribune' called the Pakistan scheme unacceptable and horrible. 'Hindustan Times' and 'Modern Review' termed it as the ingenuity of the most ingenious constitution-mongers that will be unable to divide India.

Never in the history of the world had a resolution consisting mere 40 words changed the destiny of a nation, but Lahore Resolution did this miracle. The newspaper 'Statesman’ wrote:

“It is a revolutionary proposal but those who are willing to oppose it, must study it before criticizing it. They must understand that the League has seriously presented it; therefore, it cannot be ignored as a mere fanciful dream.”

The Lahore Resolution was passed on the 27th annual session of All India Muslim League. It seems that the passing of the Resolution was a response to Congress atrocities against the Muslims. This was the time when Muslims were firmly convinced that in order to survive, they must have a separate state of their own. This stance was further strengthened by communal antagonism and harsh treatment meted by the Congress Ministries. Though the solution of Hindu-Muslim conflict had been being proposed since the 19th century, these proposals received huge impetus in 1930s and 1940s and attracted popular response as well. An illustrious historian I.H. Qureshi describes it in these words:

“The concentration of Muslim majorities in the north-west and north-east of the Subcontinent could not remain unnoticed by the political thinkers.”

British Proposals
Since the arrival of the British in the Subcontinent, many administrators and analysts had been closely observing the prevailing situation. They made a number of efforts to settle the issues between Hindus and Muslims once forever. In this regard, the first proposal came from a British parliamentarian Mr John Bright who, in 1858, proposed that various Presidencies and States would be existed instead of forming one compact state. He said:

“…and if at any future period the sovereignty of England should be withdrawn, we should leave so many Presidencies built up and firmly compacted together, each able to support its own independence and its own Government; and we should be able to say we had not left the country a prey to that anarchy and discord which I believe to be inevitable if we insist on holding those vast territories with the idea of building them up into one great empire.”

W.S. Blunt also did not see any prospect for a united India; he saw the main line of division running between the Hindus and the Muslims and pointed out, in 1881-82, the hidden strength of the Indian Muslims.

In 1932, Sir Reginald Craddock, a Governor of Burma and chairman of the Indian Constitutional Reforms Committee during British Raj, observed:

“If Norway and Sweden could not get to be united, how it can be expected that the infinitely greater diversities and divergent racial elements in India, could be welded into one self-governing and democratic whole.”

In 1932, John Coatman, in his book “The Road to Self-Government” wrote:

“It may be that the die is already cast and that no united India as we understand today will ever emerge. It may be that Moslem India in the North-West is destined to become a separate Muslim state or part of a Muslim Empire.”

Theodore Beck and Sir Theodore Morison also confirmed the 'Two Nation Theory' and rejected the principle of majority rule in Hind (the Hindu Raj). Morison suggested the concentration of the entire Muslim population of India in the area extending from Agra to Peshawar.

Hindu Proposals
Similarly many Hindu politicians and political thinkers had realized the fact that the Muslims and Hindus could never be prosperous and live together in future. Therefore, a Hindu nationalist, Bhai Parmanand, who remained an ardent supporter of Arya Samaj, suggested:

“The only satisfactory avenue to unity is to effect complete severance between the two peoples; India could be partitioned in such a manner as to secure the supremacy of Islam in one zone and that of Hinduism in the other. Under this plan, some exchange of population would be inevitable. People with strong religious feelings who found themselves in the wrong region would have to migrate to the other.”

Meanwhile a veteran Hindu leader, Lala Lajpat Rai proposed in 1924 the formation of Muslim states in the provinces of Punjab, N.W.F.P., Sind and Bengal.

Muslim Proposals
Jamal-ud-din Afghani dreamt of the formation of a Muslim Confederation consisting of the northwestern Muslim majority provinces of India, Central Asian Republics and Afghanistan. With the break-out of Urdu-Hindi controversy at Banaras in 1867, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, previously a staunch supporter of Indian nationalism, was compelled to use the word Qaum (nation) particularly for the Muslims of the Subcontinent.

Maulvi Muharram Ali Chishti (owner and editor of the Rafique-i-Hind, a weekly journal from Lahore) strongly opined that the Muslims were a nation and they should establish a political party; he also remained in touch with Syed Ameer Ali on this point. Under such circumstances, a separate Muslim organization known as “Muhammadan National Conference” was founded at Calcutta in 1889, so that the interests and claims of the Muslims for their national status could be protected.

The famous novelist and journalist Abdul Haleem Sharar (1860-1926) was the first notable and prominent Muslim intellectual who made a proposal in his weekly journal “Muhazzab” for “a kind of territorial rearrangement and exchange of population; that the Hindus and Muslims should distribute the districts between themselves.”

In 1905, a well-known poet, Akbar Allahabadi proposed:

“The North of Jumna River should be given to the Muslims so that the two nations should be able to live in peace.”

He declared Hindus and Muslims two different nations in the Subcontinent. Wilait Ali Bambooque wrote in “Gupshup” about a separate country for Muslims in Northern India. The Kheri Brothers (Abdul Jabbar and Abdul Sattar) also proposed the partition of India. Attending the Stockholm Conference of Socialist International in 1917, they submitted a report in which they urged the partition of India into Muslim India and Hindu India.

In 1920, Abdul Qadir Bilgrami wrote a letter to Gandhi in which he gave an idea for the partition of India between the Muslims and the Hindus. He also provided a list of districts, which would be a part of future separate Muslim state and surprisingly this list of districts was not so much different from the state of Pakistan made after 1947. He is also considered the first person who gave the idea for the partition of Punjab and Bengal provinces into Muslim and Non-Muslim zones.

Similarly in 1920, a great poet and revolutionary figure, Moulana Hasrat Mohani was the first one who gave a resolution for independence of India from the platform of Congress. He proposed an Indian Federal Republican State based on the model of United States of America; a state in which the Muslim states would be combined within the Hindu states (provinces).

Chaudhary Wahab-ud-din Kamboh of Amritsar presented his “Nuristan Scheme” (Nuristan means a land of light) in 1923. According to this scheme, the Muslim provinces in the northwest region of the Indian Subcontinent would be separated from other parts of India for the establishment of a Muslim state.

In 1924, Moulana Obaid Ullah Sindhi also suggested a federation where religion and state would be separated; each region would be known as “Swarajiva Republic” and would be a free member of the Federation. Delhi would be cosmopolitan city and other centres of the Federal government would be established in Agra and Lahore.

In 1925, Moulana Mohammad Ali suggested separation and the right to self-determination for the people of North India for economic, strategic, religious and cultural reasons. In the same year, some teachers and students of the Aligarh Muslim University suggested a scheme of partition of India and the creation of a Muslim state.

In 1928, Moulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi also proposed the formation of a Muslim state in the Indian Subcontinent. Meanwhile, Sir Agha Khan also articulated his ideas for the formation of a large South Asian Federation, following the pre-1914 Bavaria model. According to this model, each Indian province (state) would have complete freedom. Every free-state would be based on religion, nationality, race, language and history.

In 1930, Allama Iqbal gave his own scheme of formation of a separate Muslim homeland, delivering his famous presidential address at Allahabad session of All India Muslim League. He said,

“I am fully convinced that the Muslims of India will ultimately have to establish a separate homeland as they cannot live with Hindus in the United India……I would like to see Punjab, N.W.F.P. Sindh and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single state.”

In 1933, Chaudhry Rehmat Ali coined the term 'Pakistan' in a pamphlet 'Now or Never; Are We to Live or Perish Forever?' in which he demanded a separate Muslim state. It was the first appearance of the magic word “Pakistan”, which later became the top word for naming the future Muslim state in the Indian Subcontinent.

Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan, Chief Minister of Punjab Province, published his scheme known as “Outlines of a Scheme of Indian Federation.” This scheme proposed for the loosest of federations, with regional or zonal legislatures dealing with common interests. He suggested enormous powers for the provinces and minimum to the central government. His scheme recommended for demarcation of Indian Subcontinent into seven zones, having loose federating units.

In 1939, Dr Zafar ul Hasan and Dr Afzal Hussain Qadri wrote 'The Problems of Indian Muslims and their Solution'. This scheme, also popularly known as 'Aligarh Scheme', proposed the partition of country into three completely independent and autonomous states.

Conclusion
By the beginning of the 1940, Muslim politics entered into a new but significant phase. Now the Muslim League took a departure from pre-1937 policy. The Lahore Resolution delineates the aspirations of the Muslims that they did not want a united Indian federation rather they were to have a state of their own. There came about 170 proposals and suggestions before the Lahore Resolution i.e. from 1858 to 1940, to divide the Indian Subcontinent. Although the Hindu Press declared it a 'controversial resolution' aimed at the formation of a separate state, yet proposals regarding the division of the subcontinent had been coming from all quarters. The Lahore Resolution saw a major turn in the politics of the Subcontinent as the Muslims' struggle for a separate homeland was reinvigorated through it.

http://www.jworldtimes.com/Article/9...ition_of_India

Last edited by Last Island; Friday, March 27, 2015 at 04:23 PM. Reason: Source added
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Default Pakistan affairs

PAKISTAN AFFAIRS


27 Oct, 1947: India launched a full-scale attack on Kashmir.
1 Jan, 1948: India took Kashmir dispute to UN Security Council.
1 Apr, 1948: India cut off water supply to Pakistan from two of its headworks, causing a dispute over water.
13 Aug, 1948: UN Security Council called for ceasefire in Kashmir and withdrawal of all Pakistani and Indian forces
11 Sept, 1948: Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah passed away.
12 Mar, 1949: Objectives Resolution was passed.
1951: First Census of Pakistan was conducted.
12 Feb, 1951: Chaudhry Rehmat Ali, founder of Pakistan National Movement, passed away.
16 Oct, 1951: Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan was assassinated at Company Bagh (now Liaquat Bagh) Rawalpindi.
17 Oct, 1951: Khawaja Nazimuddin became second Prime Minister of Pakistan and Malik Ghulam Muhammad became the Governor General.
17 Apr, 1953: Khawaja Nazimuddin was dismissed by Governor General Malik Ghulam Muhammad; Muhammad Ali Bogra became the Prime Minister of Pakistan.
1954: Malik Ghulam Muhammad dissolved the Constituent Assembly and declared a state of emergency.
11 Aug, 1955: Chaudhary Muhammad Ali was appointed Prime Minister of Pakistan
15 Oct, 1955: Iskander Mirza became the Governor General of Pakistan after Malik Ghulam Muhammad.


1955: PIA was founded.
23 Mar 1956: First Constitution of Pakistan was promulgated whereby Pakistan was declared as Islamic Republic and Iskander Mirza became the first President of Pakistan after implementation of this constitution.
12 Sept 1956: Hussain Shaheed Suhrawardy became the Prime Minister replacing Chaudhary Muhammad Ali.
11 July 1957: Sir Agha Khan died in Geneva.
Oct 1957: H.S. Suhrawardy resigned from the premiership and Ismail Ibrahim Chundrigar was appointed as the new PM.
16 Dec, 1957: Malik Feroz Khan Noon replaced I.I. Chundrigar as Prime Minister.
7 Oct, 1958: First Martial Law was imposed by Iskander Mirza and 1956 Constitution was abrogated. General Muhammad Ayub Khan became the Chief Martial Law Administrator. After three weeks, General Ayub Khan ousted Iskander Mirza and declared himself as the President of Pakistan and also gave himself the rank of Field Marshal.


23 Mar, 1960: Foundation stone of Minar-e-Pakistan was laid down.
1960: Indus Waters Treaty was signed with India.
1961: Second census was held across Pakistan.
Mar, 1962: 1962 Constitution was announced by President Ayub Khan.
Jan, 1965: General Ayub Khan was elected as the President of Pakistan under the Constitution of 1962.
Sept, 1965: Second Pakistan-India War, which lasted for 17 days, was fought.
1966: Tashkent Declaration was signed between President Ayub Khan and Indian Premier Lal Bahadur Shastri.
25 Mar, 1969: Gen. Ayub Khan handed over power to Gen. Muhammad Yahya Khan who imposed second martial law.
5 Oct, 1970: General elections were postponed up to January 1971.
1971: Two Indian agents in the guise of Kashmiri mujahideen hijacked an Indian plane, Ganga, to Lahore.
2 Mar, 1971: Sheikh Mujib launched Civil Disobedience Movement.
Oct, 1971: KANUPP started operation in Karachi.
22 Nov, 1971: India launched attack on East Pakistan.

16 Dec, 1971: Bangladesh was separated from Pakistan at the end of 3rd Indo-Pak War.
20 Dec, 1971: Yahya Khan resigned and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto took over as CMLA and President of Pakistan after December 1970 Elections.
1972: The PPP regime announced land reforms.
2 July, 1972: Simla Agreement was signed.
1972: Third census in Pakistan was conducted.
13 Aug, 1973: Bhutto became the Prime Minister while Fazal Elahi Chaudhary became the President of Pakistan.
14 Aug, 1973: 1973 constitution was promulgated.
20 Dec, 1973: Bhutto laid the foundations of Pakistan Steel Mill at Pipri near Karachi.
22 Feb, 1974: Pakistan recognised Bangladesh in OIC Summit held at Lahore.
1 July, 1974: Several new corporations were created out of Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation (PIDC), including PMDC, State Cement Corporation.
1976: Qadianis were declared non-Muslims.
31 July, 1976: Kahuta Engineering Research Laboratories (KRL) was founded by Dr A.Q. Khan.
5 July, 1977: Third martial law was imposed by Gen Zia-ul-Haq. He postponed the announced elections of 15th October 1977.
7 Aug, 1977: First Pakistani, namely Ashraf Aman, summited the K2.


16 Sept, 1978: General Zia-ul-Haq took over as the President after Fazal Elahi's tenure was over.
Jan, 1979: Pakistan National Shipping Corporation was founded.
4 Apr, 1979: Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was hanged.
1981: Fourth census in Pakistan was held.
6 Feb, 1981: Movement for restoration of Democracy was launched.
23 Mar, 1981: Provisional constitution was enforced after 1973 Constitution was suspended under Zia's Martial Law.
1 May, 1981: Kahuta Research Laboratories was renamed as Khan Research Laboratories (KRL).
Dec, 1984: Presidential referendum was held and General Zia-ul-Haq became the President of Pakistan.
Feb, 1985: General elections were held on non-party basis.
20 Mar, 1985: General Zia-ul-Haq nominated Muhammad Khan Junejo as the Prime Minister of Pakistan.
14 Nov, 1985: 8th Amendment in the 1973 Constitution was passed by the Senate.
Dec, 1985: Martial Law was lifted and political parties were banned.
Aug, 1986: Karakoram Highway was opened for public.


17 Aug, 1988: Zia-ul-Haq died in a plane crash near Bahawalpur. Ghulam Ishaq Khan, Chairman Senate, assumed the office of the President of Pakistan.
Nov, 1988: Pakistan Peoples Party won elections. Benazir Bhutto became the Prime Minister.
16 July, 1990: Pakistan's first satellite Badr-1 was launched from China.
6 Aug, 1990: Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismissed Benazir Bhutto accusing her of corruption. Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi became the caretaker PM.
24-27 Oct, 1990: Elections for provincial and national assemblies were held.
1 Nov, 1990: Nawaz Sharif became the Prime Minister of Pakistan.
25 Mar, 1992: Pakistan won its first cricket world cup beating England.
19 Apr, 1993: Nawaz Sharif was dismissed by President Ghulam Ishaq Khan and National Assembly was dissolved once again. Mr Balakh Sher Mizari was appointed caretaker PM.


26 May, 1993: Supreme Court reinstated Nawaz Sharif as the Prime Minister.
8 July, 1993 President Ghulam Ishaq Khan and Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif both resigned dissolving National and Provincial Assemblies. Moin Qureshi was appointed as a caretaker PM and Ghulam Ishaq Khan as the caretaker President.
19 Oct, 1993: Benazir Bhutto once again gained power after winning elections.
13 Nov, 1993: Sardar Farooq Ahmad Khan Laghari was elected President.
5 Nov, 1996: Benazir government was dismissed by President Farooq Laghari.
6 Nov, 1996: Malik Meraj Khalid was appointed as caretaker PM.
Feb, 1997: Elections were held.
17 Feb, 1997: Nawaz Sharif was re-elected as Prime Minister after Muslim League won with an overwhelming majority.


28 Oct, 1997: Government of Pakistan submitted its instrument of ratification to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC).
1997: Thirteenth and Fourteenth amendments were passed.
1 Jan, 1998: Rafiq Tarar became the new President of Pakistan.
1998: Fifth census was held.
28 May, 1998: Five nuclear explosions were conducted at Chaghai, Balochistan.
30 May, 1998: Sixth nuclear explosion was conducted.
6 May, 1999: Kargil operation was started by Mujahideen in Kashmir.
12 Oct, 1999: Army took control of Government under Gen. Pervez Musharraf. Nawaz Sharif, along with his colleagues, was arrested.
• National Security Council was formed on Oct. 17, 1999.
• Commonwealth's membership of Pakistan was suspended on Oct. 18, 1999.
• Supreme Court of Pakistan declared interest unlawful on Dec. 23, 1999.


12 May, 2000: Supreme Court unanimously decided to validate the Oct. 12, 1999 military takeover.
14 -17 Nov, 2000: World's first and the largest Defence Exhibition “Ideas 2000” held at Expo Centre in Karachi.
9 Dec, 2000: Nawaz Sharif, along with his family, was exiled to Saudi Arabia.
29 Mar, 2001: Chashma Nuclear Power Plant was inaugurated.
20 June 2001: President Rafiq Tarar resigned and Pervez Musharraf became the President.
Dec 10, 2001: Pakistan launched BADR-2.
2001-2: Govt. of Pakistan declared 2001 as Quaid-e-Azam Year and 2002 as Iqbal year.
Dec 2003: The parliament approved the 17th Constitutional Amendment, which ratified most of the powers Musharraf sought.

18 Oct 2007: Benazir Bhutto returned Pakistan on October 18, 2007 after an eight year exile in Dubai and London.
3 Nov 2007: General Pervez Musharraf proclaimed a state of emergency and sacked the Chief Justice of Pakistan, Justice Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhary along with other 14 judges of the Supreme Court.
28 Nov 2007: General Pervez Musharraf retired from the Army and the following day, he was sworn in for a second presidential term.
27 Dec 2007: Benazir Bhutto was assassinated when she was leaving an election rally in Rawalpindi.
18 Feb 2008: General elections were held in Pakistan.
18 Aug 2008: President Pervez Musharraf announced his resignation.
9 Sept 2008: Asif Ali Zardari became the president of Pakistan


19 April 2010: President Asif Ali Zardari signed historic 18th amendment.
01 May 2011: US Special Forces killed Al-Qaida's Chief Osama bin Laden in a shootout at Abbottabad in an operation named Geronimo.
19 July 2011: Hina Rabbani Khar took oath as 26th minister for foreign affairs.
20 Oct, 2011: Muammar Gaddafi died from wounds he suffered in an attack by rebels.
11 Dec, 2011: The United States evacuated the Shamsi Airbase.
8 April 2012: An avalanche smashed into a Pakistan Army camp burying at least 135 soldiers and civilians near Siachen glacier.
19 June 2012: The Supreme Court of Pakistan disqualified Prime Minister Syed Yousuf Raza Gillani citing the earlier conviction on 26 April 2012.
22 June 2012: Raja Pervez Ashraf was elected as the country's new prime minister.
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