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Old Wednesday, March 04, 2015
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Default Abbasid Caliphate Notes

Harun al-Rashid

(766-809) was the fifth Abbasid Caliph.

History and legend unite together to establish the most brilliant period of Baghdad that was the reign of Haroon al Rashid.(pk Hitti)

Hārūn was born in Rey, then part of Persian Iraq in the Abbasid Caliphate, in present-day Tehran Province, Iran.
He was the son of al-Mahdi, the third Abbasid caliph (ruled 775 – 785), and al-Khayzuran,
a former slave girl from Yemen, and a woman of strong personality who greatly influenced affairs of state in the reigns of her husband and sons.
Hārūn was strongly influenced by the will of his mother in the governance of the empire until her death in 789.
Al-Rashid ruled from 786 to 809, during the peak of the Islamic Golden Age.
Hārūn became caliph when he was in his early twenties.
Before that, in 780 and again in 782, he had already nominally led campaigns against the Caliphate's traditional enemy, the Byzantine Empire.
The latter expedition was a huge undertaking, and even reached the Asian suburbs of Constantinople.
On the day of accession, his son al-Ma'mun was born, and al-Amin some little time later:
He began his reign by appointing very able ministers, who carried on the work of the government so well that they greatly improved the condition of the people

scientific,cultural progress

His time was marked by scientific,cultural, and religious prosperity.
Islamic art and music also flourished significantly during his reign.

He invited Scholars from India , Iran and got translated all works into Arabic.

All branches of art and science were patronized.

He established the legendary library Bayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom") in Baghdad in present-day Iraq, and during his rule Baghdad began to flourish as a center of knowledge, culture and trade.

Harun was intellectually, politically, and militarily resourceful, his life and his court was splendid.

Galaxy of Learned men in Court:

Under Haroon court was filled with poets, historians theologians,jurists,musicians,physicians ,artists and scientists.
Shafi,Ibn Idrisi,Gebrail the physician were the renowned men of his age.


Development of Hanafi School of thought:

Hanifiya school of muslim Jurisprudence of Fiqh acquired a systematic shape in his reign under chief Qazi Yusuf.
Hanafi school of thought took a definite shape under guidance of Qazi al Quzat Abu Yousuf.
”Principle of Ijma emerged as a source of muslim Jurisprudence”
Sports:Introduced Chess

Baghdad:The Greatest seat of Learning and Culture:

It was under Hārūn ar-Rashīd that Baghdad flourished into the most splendid city of its period.
Tribute was paid by many rulers to the caliph, and these funds were used on architecture, thearts and a luxurious life at court.
Haroon spent lavishly on culture , learning ,public works and art.
at the time of his death treasurry contained 900 Million Dirhams.
Baghdad became rival to Byzantine in wealth and splendour.

Arabian Nights:

The stories of Arabian nights have lent a special charm to his illustrious reign.
It throws sufficient light on the court life of Haroon ,his generosity and his patronage of worthy men.
Because of the Thousand-and-One Nights tales, Harun al-Rashid turned into a legendary figure obscuring his true historic personality.
The elaborately plotted stories , filled with intrigue, are folkloric in origin.

Three of the best known are the History of
Alladin and the Wonderful Lamp,
The History of Sinbad, the Sailor and
The History of Ali Baba and The 40 Thieves.

Patronage of Music:
He paid 10000 Dinars for a single song He was first to elevate music into a noble profession establishing degrees and Honours as in sciences and literature.”

His Brilliant Court:
His court life was indeed brilliant.
Audienced chamber adorned with richest fabrics of east.
Colourfull life of Haroon court andless pleasures and luxury.
Persian influence waas supreme.

Foreign embassies

Foreign embassies from emperor of China and Frankish king Charlemagne.
Franks returned home with gifts from Haroon included elephants,monkeys,bronze ,.
Water clock was contrived that when hour struck as many horsemen as the hour came out of a door.

Social Services :
Schools,Mosques,Hospital,Irrigation Canals.
Lower Iraq became affluent.
Treasurry was filled with millions of Dirhams.
Shift of Capital
In 796, he moved his court and government to Ar-Raqqah at the middle Euphrates in present-day Syria.
Here he spent 12 years, most of his reign.
Only once did he return to Baghdad for a short visit.
Several reasons might have influenced the decision to move to ar-Raqqa.
It was close to the Byzantine border.
The agriculture was flourishing to support the new Imperial center.
And from Raqqa any rebellion in Syria and the middle Euphrates area could be controlled.
In ar-Raqqah the Barmekids managed the fate of the empire, and there both heirs, al-Amin and al-Ma'mun grew up.

Nicephoros LETTERS

Al-Rashid waged many campaigns against the Byzantines.
When the Byzantine empress Irene was deposed, Nikephoros I became emperor and refused to pay tribute to Harun, saying that Irene should have been receiving the tribute the whole time.
News of this angered Harun, who wrote a message on the back of the Roman emperor's letter and said "In the name of God the most merciful, From Amir al-Mu'minin Harun al-Rashid, commander of the faithful, to Nikephoros, dog of the Romans. Thou shalt not hear, thou shalt behold my reply". After campaigns in Asia Minor, Nikephoros was forced to conclude a treaty, with humiliating terms.

Barmakids

During his rule, the family of Barmakids, which played a deciding role in establishing the Abbasid Caliphate, declined gradually.
His vizier (chief minister) Yahya the Barmakid, Yahya's sons (especially Ja'far ibn Yahya), and other Barmakids generally controlled the administration.
The Barmakids were a Persian family (from Balkh) that dated back to the Barmak a hereditary Buddhist priest of Nava Vihara,who converted after the Islamic conquest of Balkh and became very powerful under al-Mahdi.
Yahya had helped Hārūn in obtaining the caliphate, and he and his sons were in high favor until 798,
when the caliph threw them in prison and confiscated their land.

Haroon Frontier Defence Policy:

Haroon had spent his youth in frontier wars with Greeks.
He took special interest in Frontier defence.
He lived in Baghdad little .

He spent at ar Raqqa a bordering Place.
He created there a separate border region province.
Established line of fortresses along border.

Place military commander there.

Life long wars against Byzantine as they constantly violated treaties and invade muslim territories.

Character

Harun made the pilgrimage to Mecca several times, e.g., 793, 795, 797, 802 and last in 803.
Tabari concludes his account of Harun's reign with these words: "It has been said that when Harun al-Rashid died, there were nine hundred million odd (dirhams) in the state treasury."
In 808, Harun went to settle the insurrection of Rafi ibn al-Layth in Transoxania, became ill, and died in 809.
He was buried under the palace of Hamid ibn Qahtabi, the governor of Khurasan.
The location later became known as Mashhad ("The Place of Martyrdom") because of the martyrdom of Imam ar-Ridha in 818.
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Default Al-Ma'mun

Al-Ma'mun

was the seventh Abbasid caliph who reigned from 813 until his death in 833.

He faced other uprisings and conflict with the Byzantine Empire but the caliphate also expanded during his reign. Subdueing Afghanistan and consolidating his authority elsewhere,
Al-Ma'mun's record as an administrator was marked by his efforts toward the centralization of power and the certainty of succession.

The ulema (religious scholars) emerged as a real force in Islamic politics during al-Ma'mun's reign.

It was during his caliphate that Sunni jurisprudence took shape.

His court was tolerant of the other monotheistic faiths, whose followers participated fully in the thriving and often innovative intellectual life over which he presided.
His rule, despite persecution of those who disagreed with his creed, is generally said to have been just and moderate.

Age of Culture ,civilization,Intellectual Learning:

The reign of Al Mamun has been designated as the age of culture , civilization and intellectual development of the Saracenic nation.

Patron of learning
Al-Ma'mun's patronage of intellectuals led to the emergence of significant dialogues on both secular and religious affairs,
Al-Mamun is renowned for his patronage of learning,

It is said that as soon as Al-Ma'mun arrived in Baghdad he asked for a list to be drawn up of those men of learning who merited attendance at his court.

Ma'mun himself presided over regular discussion.
Topics ranged from inter-religious dialogue to the meaning of love; no subject was off-limits.

He would intervene whenever "discussion threatened to give way to a brawl."
Al-Ma'mun was interested in every aspect of science, philosophy and especially in astronomy.

He himself conducted, on the plains of Mesopotamia, two astronomical operations intended to determine the value of a terrestrial degree.

The crater Almanon on the Moon is named in recognition of his contributions to astronomy
He was especially interested in Euclid.

Translation Works:

He employed a large number of translators and patronized many scholars.
such scholar is regarded as the father of algebra, Al-Khwārizmī Al Kindi, al Tabari.
Many had previously worked in isolation; now they were able to exchange ideas.
commissioning translations of classical Greek texts.


Foundation of Bayt al-Hikma(830)

A combination of Library,Academy and Translation Bureau.”
It became an important center of translation for Greek and other ancient texts into Arabic.
It survived until the Mongol conquest in 1258.
This Islamic renaissance spurred the rediscovery of Hellenism and ensured the survival of these texts into the European renaissance.


Philosophy:

He was himself much interested in philosophical discussions.
Tuesday was fixed for philosophical discussions.
It was called (Augustan age of Islam)
He encouraged free thinking
It was under his patronage that the works of Plato, Aristotle,Hippocrates, and others were first translated into Arabic.
Aristotle is said to have appeared to him in a dream.

Theological Development:
Traditionalists like Bukhari,Jurists like Al Shafi and Ibn Hanbal flourished during his reign.It was an age of collectors of traditions Hadits


Mu'tazili Theology
Al-Ma’mun adopted the radical Mu'tazili theology,
which was influenced by Greek philosophy and held that God could be understood through rational inquiry,
and that belief and practice should be subject to reason.
He established the mihna, an inquisition in which the adherence of scholars and officials to Mu'tazili theology was tested,
and they could be imprisoned or even killed if they did not follow the theology.
As a result, al-Ma’mun’s reign saw a growing division between the Isalmic sovereign and the Isalmic people.


Development Of Poetry:
Patronized poetry and poets .
Abbas (Father of modern Persian poetry)flourished at his court.

Al-Ma'mun was an ardent collector of books.

The Library associated with the House of Wuisodm was the world's largest since the destruction of Alexandria Library.

Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832,

the caliph ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza looking for knowledge and treasure.

He entered the pyramid by tunneling into the Great Pyramid near where tradition located the original entrance.
Discovering little about the "mystery" of the Pyramid, he ordered it re-sealed but praised the "skill and wisdom of the ancients.
He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic. It is said that, victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over of a copy of the "Almagest,

" Ptolemy of Alexandria's famous mathematical treatise.

Inter-religious dialogue and harmony
The presence of non-Muslims at his court and their participation in scholarly and religious exchange is evidence that,
fruitful inter-religious and intellectual exchange.
His court was an hospitable place for Jews and Christians.
almost everyone whether Muslim, Christian, Jew and Zoroastrians were welcome at his court.


Caliph Al- Ma'moun Measuring the Circumference(Dimensions) of Earth

If Muslims had established the roundness of the Earth, the Abbasid Caliph, Al-Ma'moun was considered the first one to attempt to measure the dimensions of the Earth. He assigned two teams of astronomers and geographers, . He asked them to go to two different locations east and west and then to measure one degree of the longitude lines (360 in number).They collected approximately correct the dimensions of Earth

Al-Ma'mun's relations with the Byzantine Romans is marked by his efforts in the translation of Greek philosophy and science. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated magnificently and with tolerance.

A paper mill. Along with astronomical observatories the Abassid Empire built in Samarkand, in Central Asia,

Much technology was created in this period for the production of books including dyes, inks, glues, and book binding techniques, but not the printing press.

MAJOR WORKS BY MUSLIMS IN THAT ERA

The observatory of shammasiya

In this observatory Ibrahim al Fazari constructed an astrolabe.

Mamun astronomer abul Hassan invented a telescope from a tube.

Works on popular science of astrology and chemistry were written

He himself conducted, on the plains of Mesopotamia,
two astronomical operations intended to determine the value of a terrestrial degree.


Under his patronage Al Kindi even cultivated military science and
wrote an essay on swords of about 25 varieties.


Al khwarizm wrote resume on Sindh Hind for mamun
Mamun paid his chief translator Hunayn the weight of books he translated

Death

Al-Ma'mun died near Tarsus and the city's major mosque contains a tomb reported to be his.
He was succeeded by his nominated heir, his half-brother, al-Mu'tasim.
Legacy
The Abbasid empire grew somewhat during the reign of al-Ma'mun.
most of Afghanistan was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul.
Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan. El-Hibri points out that while his father's reign is associated with "romance and mystery" and "placed in a mythical milieu" Al-Ma'mun's is "associated with learning and rational pursuits" and that
"descriptions … have generally echoed with a far more realistic ring."[9]

He may qualify as the greatest patron of philosophy and science in the history of Islam.
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Default Islamic Golden Age

Islamic Golden Age

The Islamic Golden Age refers to the period in the history of Islam during the Middle Ages when much of the Muslim world was ruled by various caliphates, experiencing a scientific, economic, and cultural flourishing.
began during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun ar-Rashid (786 to 809)
with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad,
where scholars from various parts of the world sought to translate and gather all the known world's knowledge into Arabic.

It is taken to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate with the Mongol invasions and the Sack of Baghdad in 1258.
Several contemporary scholars, however, place the end around the 15th to 16th centuries.


Love of Learning

The Abbassids were influenced by the Qur'anic injunctions and hadith such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr" stressing the

value of knowledge.

During this period the Muslim world became an intellectual center for science, philosophy, medicine and education.
The Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad;
extraordinary cross-fertilization of once separate intellectual traditions that occurred
as a result of the Muslim conquests of the seventh and early eighth centuries.

Meeting place for Persians, Greeks, Indians, Copts, Berbers, Sogdians, Turks and even Chinese.

These conquests united the ancient civilizations of the Middle East - to say nothing of North Africa and Spain. under a single rule for the first time since Alexander the Great, and Baghdad, from its foundation in 763, became a meeting place for Persians, Greeks, Indians, Copts, Berbers, Sogdians, Turks and even Chinese.

These people spoke many different languages, represented a great variety of cultures and an even wider variety of religions.

Jews, Christians - of every possible variety - Manicheans, Hindus, Buddhists and even pagans jostled each other in the streets of the new capital.
Yet the Abbasids, who tended to encourage talented men whatever their origin,
absorbed them all and they, eager to contribute their talents helped to transform the empire.

The most single striking effect of the unification - of Anatolia, Iran, Syria, Iraq, Egypt, Palestine, North Africa and Spain -

under Islamic rule was the opening of formerly closed frontiers -
frontiers that had been closed politically, linguistically and intellectually since the death of Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C.

For centuries the Byzantines had been at war with the Persians;
now that major political and cultural frontier had fallen and students from the ancient university at Gondeshapur
were able to meet colleagues from the philosophical schools of Alexandria in the streets of Baghdad and the effects were dramatic:

Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba
became the main intellectual centers for science, philosophy, medicine, trade, and education.
The Muslims during this period showed a strong interest in assimilating the scientific knowledge of the civilizations that had been conquered.
Many classic works of antiquity that might otherwise have been lost were translated into
Arabic and Persian and later in turn translated into Turkish, Hebrew, and Latin.
They assimilated, synthesized, and advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient
Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian, Chinese, Egyptian, and Phoeniciancivilizations.

Government Patronage
The government heavily patronized scholars.
The money spent on the Translation Movement for some translations is estimated to be so high.
The best scholars and notable translators, such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq, had salaries that are estimated to be the equivalent of professional athletes today.

Paper Introduced:

The Barmakids were also responsible for establishing the first paper mill in Baghdad.
With a new, easier writing system and the introduction of paper, information was democratized to the extent that for probably the first time in history, it became possible to make a living from simply writing and selling books.
The use of paper spread from China into Muslim regions in the eighth century, arriving in Al-Andalus on the Iberian peninsula, present-day Spain in the 10th century.
It was easier to manufacture than parchment, less likely to crack than papyrus, and could absorb ink, making it difficult to erase and ideal for keeping records.
It was from these countries that the rest of the world learned to make paper from linen.

Translation of works of Greek philosophers to Arabic.
centers of translation and learning functioned at Merv, Salonika, Nishapur andCtesiphon situated just south Baghdad.

The Age Of Translations:
It began during Al Mansur,Haroon,Al Mamun.
The House of Wisdom was a library, translation institute and academy established in Abbasid-era Baghdad, Iraq.
At the House of Wisdom, important ideas from around the world came together.

The introduction of Indian numerals, which have become standard in the Islamic and Western worlds, greatly aided in mathematic and scientific discovery.


Scholars such as Al-Kindi revolutionized mathematics
and synthesized Greek philosophy with Islamic thought.

Progress in Science

The reigns of Harun al-Rashid (786–809) and his successors fostered an age of great intellectual achievement.

Scientific method

"world’s first true scientist".
Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen) was significant in the history of scientific method, particularly in his approach to experimentation,

Jim Al-Khalili gives the example of the classification of materials as a sign of new ways of thinking.
While the classification of the material world by the ancient Greeks into
Air,
Earth,
Fire and
Water was more philosophical,

Medieval Islamic scientists used practical, experimental observation to classify materials.

Rhazes, for example, classified minerals into six groups based on their observed chemical properties;
Spirits, which were flammable,
Material Bodies.
malleable.
Stones,
Salts, which could dissolve in water, and
Boraxes.

Jabir ibn Hayyan

His name was Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan and he born in 721 in Kufah,Iraq. He is known as the father of Arab chemistry.
Worked under patronage of barmakis during khalifa Haroon Rashid.
Jabber was the one who laid the foundations for modern scientific chemistry.
Work and Discoveries:

Jabir ibn Hayyan is widely considered as the father of Chemistry but he was also an astronomer, pharmacist, physician, philosopher and engineer.
He was credited for the discovery of nineteen (19) different substances which we call element in modern chemistry.
He was the first person to introduce the experimental method in chemistry.

Use of chemical processes: distillation, crystallization and sublimation.
He was First to discover nitric acid.
He was First to discover hydrochloric acid .
He was First to retrieve the sulfuric acid and termed it Alzaj oil.

He produced acetic acid from vinegar.

Perfume:

People have enjoyed perfume for centuries.
The hard work of two talented chemists,
Jabir ibn Hayyan (born 722) and al-Kindi (born 801) helped lay the foundations and established the perfume industry.
Through different techniques they made various perfumes from plants.

Aqua Regia:

The discoveries of these acids especially aqua regia helped the chemists to extract and purify gold and other metals for the next thousand years.

Other discoveries and Inventions:

Discovery of “caustic soda”

He Introduced improvements to the evaporation methods of liquidation,distillation, fusion and crystallization.
He explained purification of metals and dyeing of fabrics.
He manufactured incombustible paper.
He made some sort of paint that prevents iron rust.
He was the first to introduce the method of separating gold from silver.

Experimental work:

He made experiments compulsory in science. He said that without experiments science is nothing. It is an experiment after which we are able to test
anything and find the results. We should concentrate not only the theory but experiments too.


MUHAMMAD BIN MUSA AL-KHAWARIZMI (MATHEMATICIAN)

He contributed richly in the fields of Mathematics, Astronomy and Geography. He was considered an authority on Mathematics.

He composed the oldest works on arithmetic, algebra and astronomical tables.

His work “Hisab al-Jabr Wal Muqabala” was translated in Latin.

He wrote a great treatise on Algebra containing analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations; solution of a cubic equation.

He authored the following important books:

a) Hisab Al-Hindi b) Al-Jama- Wat Tafriq


ABU ALI IBN-E-SINA

Wrote a famous book named “AL-QANNUN FIL TIB” in which he discussed human physiology and medicine.
The main division is into five books, of which the first deals with general principles;
the second with simple drugs arranged alphabetically;
the third with diseases of particular organs and members of the body from the head to the foot;
the fourth with diseases which though local in their inception spread to other parts of the body, such as fevers and
the fifth with compound medicines.
This book is known as CANON in Latin ,It was an encyclopedia of medicine, which surveyed the entire medical knowledge available from ancient and muslim sources.
76O, diseases affecting all parts of the body from head to foot, specially pathology and pharmacopoia.
Was translated in many languages and it remained the sole textbook of medicine for several hundred years in western universities


Ibn Sina described the minute and graphic description of different parts of the eye, such as cornea, choroid, iris, retina, layer lens, aqueous humour, optic nerve .
He observed that Aorta at its origin contains three valves which open when the blood rushes into it .
Further, he observes that liver spleen and kidney do not contain any nerves but the nerves are embedded in the covering of these organs.
He also recognised contagious nature of Tuberculosis.
Distribution of diseases by water and soil.




AL-BIRUNI

Abu Rayhan Muhammad Al-Biruni was born in A.D 973. He was simultaneously a physician, astronomer, mathematician, physicist, geographer and historian.

He learnt Sanskarit language in order to investigate Indian knowledge.

He explained the problems of advanced trigonometry.
It was he who discovered that light travels faster than sound.
He gave an understanding to them terms of longitudes and latitudes.

a) Tahqiq Al-Hind b) Qamun Al-Masudi



IBN AL-HAITHAM (OPTICIAN)

i) Ibn Al-Haitham, better known as Alhazan in the West, was born in A.D 975.

ii) He was an outstanding mathematician, physiologists and optician.

iii) He was more known for his optical works.
He explained the refraction of light rays through transparent objects,
discovered magnifying lenses,
Described the function of retina as the seat of vision.

iv) He identified gravity as a force, a theory which was later on developed by Newton.

v) His famous books are:

a) Kitab Al-Manzir b) On Twilight Phenomena. c) Mizanul Hikma



UMER AL KHAYAM

Umar Khayyam (1048-1123 AD, Neyshapur, Iran), was a Persian polymath, mathematician, philosopher, astronomer and above all poet.
He has also become established as one of the major mathematicians and astronomers of the medieval period.
He was the author of the most important treatise on algebra Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra giving a geometric method for solving cubic equations .
Omar Khayyam introduced several reforms to the Persian calendar, largely based on ideas from the Hindu calendar.
In 1079, Sultan Malik Shah I accepted this corrected calendar as the official Persian calendar.

ABU ISHAQ KINDI (PHYSICIST)

i) He was great physicist, known as Al-Kindus in the West.

ii) He wrote a treatise on geometrical and physiological optics. He also endeavoured to ascertain the laws that govern the fall of bodies.

iii) No less than 265 works are ascribed to him of several on specific weights, tides, optics and on the reflection of light.


Institutions

Islamic universities
University of Al Karaouine

In 859, a young princess named Fatima al-Firhi founded the first degree-granting university in Fez, Morocco.

Her sister Miriam founded an adjacent mosque and together the complex became the al-Qarawiyyin Mosque and University.
Still operating almost 1,200 years later, the center still reminds people that learning is at the core of the Islamic tradition
and that the story of the al-Firhi sisters will always inspire young Muslim women around the world.

The Guinness World Records recognizes it as the world's oldest degree-granting university.

The Al-Azhar of Cairo

The Al Azhar University was the first university in the East and perhaps the oldest in history.

The universities of Cordova and Salerno:
Diffused knowledge to students composed of all communities who flocked to these seats of learning from distant parts of the world including Europe.

Nizamiyah and Mustansariya at Baghdad,

Mustansiriya Madrasah:,
was established in 1227 by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mustansir and was one of the oldest universities in the world.

HOSPITALS

Bimaristan

In 809, the Caliph Harun al-Rashid founded the Bimaristan first hospital in the Islamic World, and within a short time no major city in the empire was without one.
Every major Islamic city in the Middle Ages had a hospital;
with separate wards for fevers, ophthalmic, dysentery and surgical cases.
One of the leading Muslim doctors is

Tulun Hospital Cairo founded in 872 in Cairo

Hospitals as we know them today, with wards and teaching centers.
The first such medical center was the Ahmad ibn Tulun Hospital,.
Tulun hospital provided free care for anyone who needed it —
a policy based on the Muslim tradition of caring for all who are sick.
From Cairo, such hospitals spread around the Muslim World.


Qalawun hospital Cairo: one of the largest at the time was in Cairo, which had more than 8000 beds,

A 13th-century governor of Egypt Al Mansur Qalawun ordained a foundation for the Qalawun hospital that would contain a mosque and a chapel,
separate wards for different diseases, a library for doctors and a pharmacy.
"It served 4,000 patients daily.
Hospitals in this era were the first to require medical diplomas to license doctors.
Medical facilities traditionally closed each night, but by the 10th century laws were passed to keep hospitals open 24 hours a day,
and hospitals were forbidden to turn away patients who were unable to pay.
Eventually, charitable foundations called waqfs were formed to support hospitals, as well as schools.

Technology:


Toothbrush

The Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) popularized the use of the first toothbrush in around 600. Using a twig from the Meswak tree,
he (PBUH) cleaned his teeth and freshened his breath. Substances similar to Meswak are used in modern toothpaste.


Refinement

Distillation, the means of separating liquids through differences in their boiling points, was invented around the year 800 by Islam's foremost scientist,
Jabir ibn Hayyan, who invented many of the basic processes and apparatus still in use today —
liquefaction, crystallisation, distillation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation and filtration.
As well as discovering sulphuric and nitric acid, he invented the alembic still, giving the world intense rosewater and other perfumes and alcoholic spirits.

Vaccination

The technique of inoculation was not invented by Jenner and Pasteur but was devised in the Muslim world and brought to Europe from Turkey by the wife of the English ambassador to Istanbul in 1724. Children in Turkey were vaccinated with cowpox to fight the deadly smallpox at least 50 years before the West discovered it.

Fountain Pen

The fountain pen was invented for the Sultan of Egypt in 953 after he demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes.
It held ink in a reservoir and, as with modern pens, fed ink to the nib by a combination of gravity and capillary action.

water clocks

Islamic examples of complex water clocks and automata are believed to have strongly influenced the European craftsmen who produced the first mechanical clocks in the 13th century.[64]

The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China via Islamic countries, where the formulas for pure potassium nitrate and an explosive gunpowder effect were first developed.

It has been argued that the industrial use of waterpower had spread from Islamic to Christian Spain,

Paper mills were widely established

A number of industries were generated during the Arab Agricultural Revolution, including early industries for textiles, sugar, rope-making, matting, silk, and paper.

Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses of hydropower,

Windmill

The windmill was invented in 634 for a Persian caliph and was used to grind corn and draw up water for irrigation.
In the vast deserts of Arabia, when the seasonal streams ran dry, the only source of power was the wind which blew steadily from one direction for months.
Mills had six or 12 sails covered in fabric or palm leaves.
It was 500 years before the first windmill was seen in Europe.

The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century,

while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century.
A number of very practical innovations took place, especially in the field of agriculture.

Improved methods of irrigation
allowed more land to be cultivated, and new types of mills and turbines were used to reduce the need for labor.

Crops and farming techniques

were adopted from far-flung neighboring cultures. Rice, cotton, and sugar were taken from India, citrus fruits from China, and sorghum from Africa.

Surgical instruments of Zahrawi.

Shampoo

Washing and bathing are religious requirements for Muslims, which is perhaps why they perfected the recipe for soap which we still use today.
The ancient Egyptians had soap of a kind, as did the Romans who used it more as pomade.
But it was the Arabs who combined vegetable oils with sodium hydroxide and aromatics such as thyme oil.
One of the Crusaders' most striking characteristics, to Arab nostrils, was that they did not wash.
Shampoo was introduced to England by a Muslim who opened Mahomed's Indian Vapour Baths on Brighton seafront in 1759
and was appointed Shampooing Surgeon to Kings George IV and William IV.


First Flying machine by Abbas ibn Firnas

Arts Islamic influences on Western art

Literature

The best known fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights.

Islamic Decorative Arts

Islamic decorative arts were highly valued imports to Europe throughout the Middle Ages.

Textiles were especially important,
used for church, shrouds, hangings and clothing for the elite.

ornamental
small hunting scenes,
Mosaics and metal inlays,
sculpture, and bronzeworking.
ceramics (lusterware),
Glass, metalwork, textiles,
Illuminated manuscripts, and
woodwork flourished.
Portrait miniature painting flourished in Persia.
Calligraphy, an essential aspect of written Arabic,
developed in manuscripts and architectural decoration.

The Arabic Kufic script was often imitated for decorative effect in in textiles,
to produce what is known as pseudo-Kufic:


Islamic pottery of everyday quality was still preferred to European wares.


Islamic carpets
Islamic carpets of Middle-Eastern origin,
were a significant sign of wealth and luxury in Europe.

Music
A number of musical instruments used in European music were influenced by Arabic musical instruments,
the rebec from the rebab,
the guitar from qitara,
the naker from naqareh
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Default Islamic Golden Age

Islamic Golden Age


The Islamic Golden Age is traditionally dated from the mid-7th century to the mid-13th century at which Muslim rulers established one of the largest empires in history.

During this period, artists, engineers, scholars, poets, philosophers, geographers and traders in the Islamic world contributed to agriculture, the arts, economics, industry, law, literature,navigation, philosophy, sciences, sociology, and technology, both by preserving earlier traditions and by adding inventions and innovations of their own. Also at that time the Muslim world became a major intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education.

In Baghdad they established the “House of Wisdom“, where scholars, both Muslim and non-Muslim, sought to gather and translate the world’s knowledge into Arabic in the Translation Movement. Many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been forgotten were translated into Arabic and later in turn translated into Turkish, Sindhi, Persian, Hebrew and Latin. Knowledge was synthesized from works originating in ancientMesopotamia, Ancient Rome, China, India, Persia, Ancient Egypt, North Africa, Ancient Greece and Byzantine civilizations.

Rival Muslim dynasties such as the Fatimids of Egypt and the Umayyads of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such as Cairo and Córdoba rivaling Baghdad.

The Islamic empire was the first “truly universal civilization,” which brought together for the first time “peoples as diverse as the Chinese, the Indians, the people of the Middle East and North Africa, black Africans, and white Europeans.”

A major innovation of this period was paper – originally a secret tightly guarded by the Chinese.

The art of papermaking was obtained from prisoners taken at the Battle of Talas (751), spreading to the Islamic cities of Samarkand and Baghdad.

The Arabs improved upon the Chinese techniques of using mulberry bark by using starch to account for the Muslim preference for pens vs. the Chinese for brushes. By AD 900 there were hundreds of shops employing scribes and binders for books in Baghdad and public libraries began to become established. From here paper-making spread west to Morocco and then to Spain and from there to Europe in the 13th century.

Much of this learning and development can be linked to topography. Even prior to Islam’s presence, the city of Mecca served as a center of trade in Arabia. The tradition of the pilgrimage to Mecca became a center for exchanging ideas and goods.

The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous.

As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to their Christian, Indian and Chinese peers who built societies from an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their faith to China, India, South-east Asia, and the kingdoms of Western Africa and returned with new inventions. Merchants used their wealth to invest in textiles and plantations.

Aside from traders, Sufi missionaries also played a large role in the spread of Islam, by bringing their message to various regions around the world. The principal locations included:Persia, Ancient Mesopotamia, Central Asia and North Africa. Although, the mystics also had a significant influence in parts of Eastern Africa, Ancient Anatolia (Turkey), South Asia,East Asia and South-east Asia.

Islamic ethics
Many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic, rational and scientific discourses in their search for knowledge, meaning and values.
A wide range of Islamic writings on love, poetry, history and philosophical theology show that medieval Islamic thought was open to the humanistic ideas of individualism, occasional secularism, skepticism and liberalism.

Religious freedom, though society was still controlled under Islamic values, helped create cross-cultural networks by attracting Muslim, Christian and Jewish intellectuals and thereby helped spawn the greatest period of philosophical creativity in the Middle Ages from the 8th to 13th centuries.

Another reason the Islamic world flourished during this period was an early emphasis on freedom of speech, as summarized by al-Hashimi (a cousin of Caliph al-Ma’mun) in the following letter to one of the religious opponents he was attempting toconvert through reason:

“Bring forward all the arguments you wish and say whatever you please and speak your mind freely.

Now that you are safe and free to say whatever you please appoint some arbitrator who will impartially judge between us and lean only towards the truth and be free from the empary of passion, and that arbitrator shall be Reason, whereby God makes us responsible for our own rewards and punishments. Herein I have dealt justly with you and have given you full security and am ready to accept whatever decision Reason may give for me or against me. For “There is no compulsion in religion” (Qur’an 2:256) and I have only invited you to accept our faith willingly and of your own accord and have pointed out the hideousness of your present belief. Peace be upon you and the blessings of God!”

Early proto-environmentalist treatises were written in Arabic by al-Kindi, al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Abd-el-latif, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, and municipal solid waste mishandling. Cordoba, al-Andalus also had the first waste containers and waste disposal facilities for litter collection.

Institutions
A number of important educational and scientific institutions previously unknown in the ancient world have their origins in the early Islamic world, with the most notable examples being: the public hospital (which replaced healing temples and sleep temples) and psychiatric hospital, the public library and lending library, the academic degree-granting university, and the astronomical observatory as a research institute as opposed to a private observation post as was the case in ancient times).

The first universities which issued diplomas were the Bimaristan medical university-hospitals of the medieval Islamic world, where medical diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be practicing doctors of medicine from the 9th century.

The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 CE.

Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in the 975 CE, offered a variety of academic degrees, including postgraduate degrees, and is often considered the first full-fledged university. The origins of the doctorate also dates back to the ijazat attadris wa ‘l-ifttd (“license to teach and issue legal opinions”) in the medieval Madrasahs which taught Islamic law.

The library of Tripoli is said to have had as many as three million books before it was destroyed by Crusaders. The number of important and original medieval Arabic works on the mathematical sciences far exceeds the combined total of medieval Latin and Greek works of comparable significance, although only a small fraction of the surviving Arabic scientific works have been studied in modern times.

“The results of the Arab scholars’ literary activities are reflected in the enormous amount of works (about some hundred thousand) and manuscripts (not less than 5 million) which were current… These figures are so imposing that only the printed epoch presents comparable materials”

A number of distinct features of the modern library were introduced in the Islamic world, where libraries not only served as a collection of manuscripts as was the case in ancient libraries, but also as a public library and lending library, a centre for the instruction and spread of sciences and ideas, a place for meetings and discussions, and sometimes as a lodging for scholars or boarding school for pupils.

The concept of the library catalogue was also introduced in medieval Islamic libraries, where books were organized into specific genres and categories.

Legal institutions introduced in Islamic law include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf), the agency and aval (Hawala), and the lawsuit and medical peer review.


Polymaths
Another common feature during the Islamic Golden Age was the large number of Muslim polymath scholars, who were known as “Hakeems”, each of whom contributed to a variety of different fields of both religious and secular learning, comparable to the later “Renaissance Men” (such as Leonardo da Vinci) of the European Renaissance period. During the Islamic Golden Age, polymath scholars with a wide breadth of knowledge in different fields were more common than scholars who specialized in any single field of learning.

Notable medieval Muslim polymaths included al-Biruni, al-Jahiz, al-Kindi, Ibn Sina (Latinized: Avicenna), al-Idrisi, Ibn Bajjah, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Tufail, Ibn Rushd (Latinized: Averroes), al-Suyuti, Jābir ibn Hayyān, Abbas Ibn Firnas, Ibn al-Haytham (Latinized: Alhazen or Alhacen), Ibn al-Nafis, Ibn Khaldun, al-Khwarizmi, al-Masudi, al-Muqaddasi, and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī.

Economy
The Islamic Empire significantly contributed to globalization during the Islamic Golden Age, when the knowledge, trade and economies from many previously isolated regions and civilizations began integrating through contacts with Muslim (and Jewish Radhanite) explorers and traders.

Their trade networks extended from the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Indian Ocean and China Sea in the east. These trade networks helped establish the Islamic Empire as the world’s leading extensive economic power throughout the 7th–13th centuries.

Agricultural
The Islamic Golden Age witnessed a fundamental transformation in agriculture known as the “Arab Agricultural Revolution”.
Muslim traders enabled the diffusion of many crops andfarming techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world.

Crops from Africa such as sorghum, crops from China such as citrus fruits, and numerous crops from India such as rice, cotton, and sugar cane, were distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these crops. Newly adopted crops combined with an increased mechanization of agriculture which led to major changes in economy, population distribution, vegetationcover, agricultural production and income, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, cooking and diet, clothing, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world.

During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, sugar production was refined and transformed into a large-scale industry, as Arabs and Berbers built the first sugar refineries and established sugar plantations. Sugar production diffused throughout the Islamic Empire from the 8th century.

Muslims introduced cash cropping and a crop rotation system in which land was cropped four or more times in a two-year period. Winter crops were followed by summer ones. In areas where plants of shorter growing season were used, such as spinach and eggplants, the land could be cropped three or more times a year. In parts of Yemen, wheat yielded two harvests a year on the same land, as did rice in Iraq. Muslims developed a scientific approach to agriculture based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of crop rotation, highly developed irrigation techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of crops which were studied and catalogued according to the season, type of land and amount of water they require.

Market Economy
Early forms of proto-capitalism and free markets were present in the empire time where an early market economy and early form of merchant capitalism was developed between the 8th–12th centuries, which some refer to as “Islamic capitalism”.

A vigorous monetary economy was created on the basis of a widely circulated common currency (the dinar) and the integration of monetary areas that were previously independent.

Business techniques and forms of business organisation employed during this time included early contracts, bills of exchange, long-distance international trade, early forms of partnership (mufawada) such as limited partnerships (mudaraba), and early forms of credit, debt, profit, loss, capital (al-mal), capital accumulation (nama al-mal), circulating capital, capital expenditure, revenue, cheques, promissory notes, trusts (waqf), savings accounts, transactional accounts, pawning, loaning, exchange rates, bankers, money changers, ledgers, deposits, assignments, the double-entry bookkeeping system, and lawsuits.
Organizational enterprises independent from the state also existed in the medieval Islamic world.
Many of these early proto-capitalist concepts were further advanced in medieval Europe from the 13th century onwards.

Industrial growth
Hydropower, tidal power, and wind power were used to power mills and factories. Limited use was also made of fossil fuels such as petroleum.
The industrial use of watermills in the Islamic world dates back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century.
A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, sawmills, shipmills, stamp mills, steel mills sugar mills, tide mills and windmills.

By the 11th century, mills operated throughout the Islamic world, from Spain (al-Andalus) and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.

Muslim engineers also invented crankshafts and water turbines, employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as sources of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.

Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world.

The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution.

Established industries active during this period included astronomical instruments, ceramics, chemicals, distillation technologies, clocks, glass, mechanical hydropowered and wind powered machinery, matting, mosaics, pulp and paper, perfumery, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, rope-making, shipping, shipbuilding, silk, sugar, textiles, water, weapons, and the miningof minerals such as sulphur, ammonia, lead and iron.

Knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to medieval Europe, especially during the Latin translations of the 12th century. For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century by Egyptian craftsmen in Greece. The agricultural and handicraft industries also grew during this period.

Labor
The labour force in the Islamic empire were employed from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse occupations and economic activities.

Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse occupations in the primary sector (as farmers for example), secondary sector (as construction workers, dyers, spinners, etc.) and tertiary sector (as investors, doctors, nurses, presidents of guilds, brokers, peddlers, lenders, scholars, etc.). Muslim women also had a monopolyover certain branches of the textile industry.

Slaves occupied an important place in the economic life of Islamic world. Large numbers of slaves were exported from eastern Africa to work in salt mines and labour-intensiveplantations; the best evidence for this is the magnitude of the Zanj revolt in Iraq in the 9th century. Slaves were also used for domestic work, military service, and civil administration.
Central and Eastern European slaves were generally known as Saqaliba (i.e. Slavs), while slaves from Central Asia and the Caucasus were often known as Mamluk.

Technology
A significant number of inventions were produced by medieval Muslim engineers and inventors, such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, the Banū Mūsā, Taqi al-Din, and most notably al-Jazari.

Some of the inventions journalist Paul Vallely has stated to have come from the Islamic Golden Age include the camera obscura, coffee, soap bar, tooth paste, shampoo, distilledalcohol, uric acid, nitric acid, alembic, valve, reciprocating suction piston pump, mechanized waterclocks, quilting, surgical catgut, vertical-axle windmill, inoculation, cryptanalysis,frequency analysis, three-course meal, stained glass and quartz glass, Persian carpet, and celestial globe.


Urbanization
The city of Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Leaders and a major center of learning and trade in the world.
As urbanization increased, Muslim cities grew unregulated, resulting in narrow winding city streets and neighbourhoods separated by different ethnic backgrounds and religious affiliations.
Suburbs lay just outside the walled city, from wealthy residential communities, to working class semi-slums.

City garbage dumps were located far from the city, as were clearly defined cemeteries which were often homes for criminals.

A place of prayer was found just near one of the main gates, for religious festivals and public executions. Similarly, military training grounds were found near a main gate.

Muslim cities also had advanced domestic water systems with sewers, public baths, drinking fountains, piped drinking water supplies, and widespread private and public toilet and bathing facilities.

The demographics of medieval Islamic society varied in some significant aspects from other agricultural societies, including a decline in birth rates as well as a change in life expectancy.

Other traditional agrarian societies are estimated to have had an average life expectancy of 20 to 25 years, while ancient Rome and medieval Europe are estimated at 20 to 30 years. Conrad I. Lawrence estimates the average lifespan in the early Islamic Caliphate to be above 35 years for the general population, and several studies on the life spans of Islamic scholars concluded that members of this occupational group had a life expectancy between 69 and 75 years, though this longevity was not representative of the general population.

The early Islamic Empire also had the highest literacy rates among pre-modern societies, alongside the city of classical Athens in the 4th century BC, and later, China after the introduction of printing from the 10th century.

One factor for the relatively high literacy rates in the early Islamic Empire was its parent-driven educational marketplace, as the state did not systematically subsidize educational services until the introduction of state funding under Nizam al-Mulk in the 11th century.

Another factor was the diffusion of paper from China, which led to an efflorescence of books and written culture in Islamic society, thus papermaking technology transformed Islamic society (and later, the rest of Afro-Eurasia) from an oralto scribal culture, comparable to the later shifts from scribal to typographic culture, and from typographic culture to the Internet.

Other factors include the widespread use of paperbooks in Islamic society (more so than any other previously existing society), the study and memorization of the Qur’an, flourishing commercial activity, and the emergence of theMaktab and Madrasah educational institutions.


Science
Early scientific methods were developed in the Islamic world, where significant progress in methodology was made, especially in the works of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century, who is considered a pioneer of experimental physics, which some place in the experimental tradition of Ptolemy.

Others see his use of experimentation and quantification to distinguish between competing scientific theories as an innovation in scientific method.

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the Book of Optics, in which he significantly reformed the field of optics, empirically proved that vision occurred because of light rays entering the eye, and invented the camera obscura to demonstrate the physical nature of light rays.

Ibn al-Haytham has also been described as the “first scientist” for his development of the scientific method, and his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception is considered a precursor to psychophysics and experimental psychology although this is still the matter of debate.


Peer review
The earliest medical peer review, a process by which a committee of physicians investigate the medical care rendered in order to determine whether accepted standards of care have been met, is found in the Ethics of the Physician written by Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi (854–931) of al-Raha in Syria. His work, as well as later Arabic medical manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a patient’s condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would review the practising physician’s notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a lawsuit from a maltreated patient.

The first scientific peer review, the evaluation of research findings for competence, significance and originality by qualified experts, was described later in the Medical Essays and Observations published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1731.

The present-day scientific peer review system evolved from this 18th century process.

Astronomy
Ibn al-Shatir’s model for the appearances of Mercury, showing the multiplication of epicycles using the Tusi-couple, thus eliminating the Ptolemaic eccentrics and equant.

Some have referred to the achievements of the Maragha school and their predecessors and successors in astronomy as a “Maragha Revolution”, “Maragha School Revolution” or “Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance”.

Advances in astronomy by the Maragha school and their predecessors and successors include the construction of the first observatory in Baghdad during the reign of Caliph al-Ma’mun, the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of universal astrolabes, the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, the beginning of astrophysics and celestial mechanics after Ja’far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir discovered that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical laws as Earth, the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena, the use of exacting empirical observations and experimental techniques, the discovery that the celestial spheres are not solid and that the heavens are less dense than the air by Ibn al-Haytham, the separation of natural philosophy from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham and Ibn al-Shatir, the first non-Ptolemaic models by Ibn al-Haytham andMo’ayyeduddin Urdi, the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather than philosophical grounds by Ibn al-Shatir, the first empirical observational evidence of the Earth’s rotation by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali Qushji, and al-Birjandi’s early hypothesis on “circular inertia.”

Several Muslim astronomers also considered the possibility of the Earth’s rotation on its axis and perhaps a heliocentric solar system.

It is known that the Copernican heliocentric model in Nicolaus Copernicus’ De revolutionibus employed geometrical constructions that had been developed previously by the Maragheh school, and that his arguments for the Earth’s rotation were similar to those of Nasīr al-Dīn Tūsī and Ali Qushji.

Chemistry
Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber) is considered a pioneer of chemistry, as he was responsible for introducing an early experimental scientific method within the field, as well as the alembic, still,retort, and the chemical processes of pure distillation, filtration, sublimation, liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation and evaporation.

The alchemists’ claims about the transmutation of metals were rejected by al-Kindi, followed by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, Avicenna, and Ibn Khaldun.
Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī stated a version of the law of conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter is able to change, but is not able to disappear.
Alexander von Humboldt and Will Durant consider medieval Muslim chemists to be founders of chemistry.

Mathematics
An illustration of patterned Girih tiles, found in Islamic architecture dating back over five centuries ago. These featured the first quasicrystal patterns and self-similar fractal quasicrystalline tilings.
Among the achievements of Muslim mathematicians during this period include the development of algebra and algorithms by the Persian and Islamic mathematician Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, the invention of spherical trigonometry,the addition of the decimal point notation to the Arabic numerals introduced by Sind ibn Ali,
the invention of all the trigonometric functions besides sine,
al-Kindi’s introduction of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis,
al-Karaji’s introduction of algebraic calculus and proof by mathematical induction,
the development of analytic geometry and the earliest general formula for infinitesimal and integral calculus by Ibn al-Haytham,
the beginning of algebraic geometry by Omar Khayyam,
the first refutations of Euclidean geometry and the parallel postulate by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī,
the first attempt at a non-Euclidean geometry by Sadr al-Din,
the development of symbolic algebra by Abū al-Hasan ibn Alī al-Qalasādī, and numerous other advances in algebra, arithmetic, calculus, cryptography, geometry, number theory and trigonometry.

Medicine
Islamic medicine was a genre of medical writing that was influenced by several different medical systems. The works of ancient Greek and Roman physicians Hippocrates, Dioscorides,Soranus, Celsus and Galen had a lasting impact on Islamic medicine.

Muslim physicians made many significant contributions to medicine in the fields of anatomy, experimental medicine, ophthalmology, pathology, the pharmaceutical sciences,physiology, surgery, etc.
They also set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals, including the first medical schools and psychiatric hospitals.

Al-Kindi wrote the De Gradibus, in which he first demonstrated the application of quantification and mathematics to medicine and pharmacology, such as a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs and the determination in advance of the most critical days of a patient’s illness.

Al-Razi (Rhazes) discovered measles and smallpox, and in his Doubts about Galen, proved Galen’s humorismfalse.

Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) helped lay the foudations for modern surgery, with his Kitab al-Tasrif, in which he invented numerous surgical instruments, including the surgical uses ofcatgut, the ligature, surgical needle, retractor, and surgical rod.

Ibn Sina (Avicenna) helped lay the foundations for modern medicine, with The Canon of Medicine, which was responsible for the discovery of contagious disease, introduction ofquarantine to limit their spread, introduction of experimental medicine, evidence-based medicine, clinical trials, randomized controlled trials, efficacy tests, and clinical pharmacology,
the first descriptions on bacteria and viral organisms, distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, contagious nature of tuberculosis,
distribution of diseases by water and soil, skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, nervous ailments, use of ice to treat fevers, and separation of medicine from pharmacology.

Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) was the earliest known experimental surgeon.
In the 12th century, he was responsible for introducing the experimental method into surgery,
as he was the first to employ animal testing in order to experiment with surgical procedures before applying them to human patients.
He also performed the first dissections and postmortem autopsies on humans as well as animals.

Ibn al-Nafis laid the foundations for circulatory physiology, as he was the first to describe the pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation, which form the basis of the circulatory system, for which he is considered “the greatest physiologist of the Middle Ages.” He also described the earliest concept of metabolism, and developed new systems of physiology and psychology to replace the Avicennian and Galenic systems, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on humorism, pulsation, bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus, stomach, etc.

Ibn al-Lubudi rejected the theory of humorism, and discovered that the body and its preservation depend exclusively upon blood, women cannot produce sperm, the movement ofarteries are not dependent upon the movement of the heart, the heart is the first organ to form in a fetus’ body, and the bones forming the skull can grow into tumors.

Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib discovered that infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms which enter the human body.

Mansur ibn Ilyas drew comprehensive diagrams of the body’s structural, nervous and circulatory systems.


Physics
A page of Ibn Sahl’s manuscript showing his discovery of the law of refraction (Snell’s law).
The study of experimental physics began with Ibn al-Haytham, a pioneer of modern optics, who introduced the experimental scientific method and used it to drastically transform the understanding of light and vision in his Book of Optics, which has been ranked alongside Isaac Newton’s Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica as one of the most influential books in the history of physics, for initiating a scientific revolution in optics and visual perception.

The experimental scientific method was soon introduced into mechanics by Biruni, and early precursors to Newton’s laws of motion were discovered by several Muslim scientists.

The law of inertia, known as Newton’s first law of motion, and the concept of momentum were discovered by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) and Avicenna.
The proportionality between forceand acceleration, considered “the fundamental law of classical mechanics” and foreshadowing Newton’s second law of motion, was discovered by Hibat Allah Abu’l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi, while the concept of reaction, foreshadowing Newton’s third law of motion, was discovered by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace).

Theories foreshadowing Newton’s law of universal gravitation were developed by Ja’far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir, Ibn al-Haytham, and al-Khazini. Galileo Galilei’s mathematical treatment of acceleration and his concept ofimpetus was enriched by the commentaries of Avicenna and Ibn Bajjah to Aristotle’s Physics as well as the Neoplatonic tradition of Alexandria, represented by John Philoponus.


Other sciences
Many other advances were made by Muslim scientists in biology (anatomy, botany, evolution, physiology and zoology), the earth sciences (anthropology, cartography, geodesy,geography and geology), psychology (experimental psychology, psychiatry, psychophysics and psychotherapy), and the social sciences (demography, economics, sociology, history and historiography).

Other famous Muslim scientists during the Islamic Golden Age include al-Farabi (a polymath),
Biruni (a polymath who was one of the earliest anthropologists and a pioneer of geodesy),
Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (a polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (considered to be a pioneer of several social sciences such as demography, economics, cultural history, historiography and sociology), among others.


Architecture

The Great Mosque of Xi’an in China was completed circa 740, and the Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq was completed in 847.
The Great Mosque of Samarra combined the hypostylearchitecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base above which a huge spiraling minaret was constructed.

The Spanish Muslims began construction of the Great Mosque at Cordoba in 785 marking the beginning of Islamic architecture in Spain and Northern Africa (see Moors).
The mosque is noted for its striking interior arches.
Moorish architecture reached its peak with the construction of the Alhambra,
the magnificent palace/fortress of Granada, with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue, and gold.
The walls are decorated with stylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, and arabesque design work, with walls covered in glazed tiles.

In the Sunni Muslim Ottoman Empire massive mosques with ornate tiles and calligraphy were constructed by a series of sultans including the Süleymaniye Mosque , Sultanahmet Mosque, Selimiye Mosque, and Bayezid II Mosque.


Arts
An Arabic manuscript from the 13th century depicting Socrates (Soqrāt) in discussion with his pupils.

The golden age of Islamic (and/or Muslim) art lasted from 750 to the 16th century, when ceramics, glass, metalwork, textiles, illuminated manuscripts, and woodwork flourished. Lustrous glazing was an Islamic contribution to ceramics. Islamic luster-painted ceramics were imitated by Italian potters during the Renaissance.

Manuscript illumination developed into an important and greatly respected art, and portrait miniature painting flourished in Persia. Calligraphy, an essential aspect of written Arabic, developed in manuscripts and architectural decoration.

Literature
Main articles: Islamic literature, Arabic literature, Arabic epic literature, and Persian literature
The most well known work of fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales told by the Persian Queen Scheherazade. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.
All Arabian fantasy tales were often called “Arabian Nights” when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, in any version, and a number of tales are known in Europe as “Arabian Nights” despite existing in no Arabic manuscript.

This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland. Many imitations were written, especially in France. Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba. However, no medieval Arabic source has been traced for Aladdin, which was incorporated into The Book of One Thousand and One Nights by its French translator, Antoine Galland, who heard it from an Arab Syrian Christian storyteller from Aleppo.

Part of its popularity may have sprung from the increasing historical and geographical knowledge, so that places of which little was known and so marvels were plausible had to be set further “long ago” or farther “far away”; this is a process that continues, and finally culminate in the fantasy world having little connection, if any, to actual times and places. A number of elements from Arabian mythology and Persian mythology are now common in modern fantasy, such as genies, bahamuts, magic carpets, magic lamps, etc. When L. Frank Baum proposed writing a modern fairy tale that banished stereotypical elements, he included the genie as well as the dwarf and the fairy as stereotypes to go.

Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history.
Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan.

A famous example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance (love) is Layla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century.
It is a tragic story of undying lovemuch like the later Romeo and Juliet, which was itself said to have been inspired by a Latin version of Layli and Majnun to an extent.

Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical novel.
Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to al-Ghazali’s The Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novel Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail’s Philosophus Autodidactus.

Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic feral children living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus,
the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming an early example of proto-science fiction.

Theologus Autodidactus, written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288), is an early example of proto-science fiction.
It deals with various science fiction elements such asspontaneous generation, futurology, and the end of the world and doomsday.
Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology known in his time. His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain Islamic religious teachings in terms of science and philosophy through the use of fiction.

A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail’s work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations. These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, regarded as the first novel in English. Philosophus Autodidactus also inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist. The story also anticipated Rousseau’s Emile: or, On Education in some ways, and is also similar to Mowgli’s story in Rudyard Kipling’s The Jungle Book as well as Tarzan’s story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother wolf.

Dante Alighieri’s Divine Comedy, considered the greatest epic of Italian literature, derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on Islamic eschatology: the Hadith and the Kitab al-Miraj (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before as Liber Scale Machometi, “The Book of Muhammad’s Ladder”) concerningMuhammad’s ascension to Heaven, and the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi.

The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele’s The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a MoorishOthello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century.


Music

A number of musical instruments used in classical music are believed to have been derived from Arabic musical instruments:
the lute was derived from the al’ud, the rebec (ancestor ofviolin) from the rebab,
the guitar from qitara, naker from naqareh, adufe from al-duff,
alboka from al-buq, anafil from al-nafir, exabeba from al-shabbaba (flute),
atabal (bass drum) from al-tabl, atambal from al-tinbal, the balaban,
the castanet from kasatan, sonajas de azófar from sunuj al-sufr,
the conical bore wind instruments, the xelami from the sulami orfistula (flute or musical pipe),
the shawm and dulzaina from the reed instruments zamr and al-zurna,
the gaita from the ghaita, rackett from iraqya or iraqiyya, tambura, sitar,
the harpand zither from the qanun, geige (violin) from ghichak, and the theorbo from the tarab.

A theory on the origins of the Western Solfège musical notation suggests that it may have also had Arabic origins.
It has been argued that the Solfège syllables (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti) may have been derived from the syllables of the Arabic solmization system Durr-i-Mufassal (“Separated Pearls”) (dal, ra, mim, fa, sad, lam).
This origin theory was first proposed by Meninski in his Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum (1680) and then by Laborde in his Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne (1780).
See as well the gifted Ziryab (Abu l-Hasan ‘Ali Ibn Nafi‘).

Ottoman military bands are thought to be the oldest variety of military marching band in the world.
Though they are often known by the Persian-derived word Mehter.
The standard instruments employed by a Mehter are: Bass drum (timpani),
the kettledrum (nakare), Frame drum (davul), the Cymbals (zil), Oboes and Flutes, Zurna,
the “Boru” (a kind of trumpet),Triangle (instrument), and the Cevgen (a kind of stick bearing small concealed bells).
These military bands inspired many Western nations and especially the Orchestra inspiring the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven.


Philosophy

Ibn Rushd, founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries had an impact on the rise of secular thought in Western Europe.

Arab philosophers like al-Kindi (Alkindus) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Persian philosophers like Ibn Sina (Avicenna) played a major role in preserving the works of Aristotle, whose ideas came to dominate the non-religious thought of the Christian and Muslim worlds. They would also absorb ideas from China, and India, adding to them tremendous knowledge from their own studies.

Three speculative thinkers, al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and Avicenna (Ibn Sina), fused Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam, such as Kalam and Qiyas.

This led to Avicenna founding his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands.
Avicenna was also a critic of Aristotelian logic and founder of Avicennian logic, and he developed the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa, and distinguished between essence and existence.

From Spain the Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Ladino, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy.

The Jewish philosopherMoses Maimonides, Muslim sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun, Carthage citizen Constantine the African who translated ancient Greek medical texts, and the PersianAl-Khwarzimi’s collation of mathematical techniques were important figures of the Golden Age.

One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries had an impact on the rise of secular thought in Western Europe. He also developed the concept of “existence precedes essence”.

Another influential philosopher who had a significant influence on modern philosophy was Ibn Tufail. His philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture, condition of possibility, materialism, and Molyneux’s Problem.

European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include John Locke, Gottfried Leibniz, Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens, George Keith, Robert Barclay, theQuakers, and Samuel Hartlib.

Al-Ghazali also had an important influence on Jewish thinkers like Maimonidesand Christian medieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas.
However, al-Ghazali also wrote a devastating critique in his The Incoherence of the Philosophers on the speculative theological works of Kindi, Farabi and Ibn Sina.

The study of metaphysics declined in the Muslim world due to this critique, though Ibn Rushd (Averroes) responded strongly in his The Incoherence of the Incoherence to many of the points Ghazali raised. Nevertheless, Avicennism continued to flourish long after and Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when Mulla Sadra founded his school ofTranscendent Theosophy and developed the concept of existentialism.

Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer of evolutionary thought and natural selection; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), a pioneer of phenomenology and thephilosophy of science and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle’s concept of place (topos); Biruni, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn Tufail and Ibn al-Nafis, pioneers of the philosophical novel; Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, founder of Illuminationist philosophy; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic; and Ibn Khaldun, a pioneer in the philosophy of history and social philosophy.


End of the Golden Age


Mongol invasion
After the Crusades from the West that resulted in the instability of the Islamic world during the 11th century, a new threat came from the East during the 13th century: the Mongol invasions. In 1206, Genghis Khan from Central Asia established a powerful Mongol Empire. A Mongolian ambassador to the Abbasid Leader in Baghdad is said to have been murdered, which may have been one of the reasons behind Hulagu Khan’s sack of Baghdad in 1258.

The Mongols and Turks from Central Asia conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including both China in the east and parts of the old Islamic empire and Persian IslamicKhwarezm, as well as Russia and Eastern Europe in the west, and subsequent invasions of the Levant. Later Turkic leaders, such as Timur, though he himself became a Muslim, destroyed many cities, slaughtered thousands of people and did irreparable damage to the ancient irrigation systems of Mesopotamia. On the other hand, due to the lack of a powerful leader after the Mongolian invasion and Turkish settlement, some local Turkish kingdoms appeared in the Islamic world and they were in war and fighting against each other for centuries.

The most powerful kingdoms among them were the empire of Ottoman Turks, who became Sunni Muslims and the empire of Safavi Turks, who became Shia Muslims.
Eventually, they invaded very wide parts of the Islamic world and entered in a competition and a series of bloody wars until the middle of 17th century.

Traditionalist Muslims at the time, including the polymath Ibn al-Nafis, believed that the Crusades and Mongol invasions were a divine punishment from God against Muslims deviating from the Sunnah.
As a result, the falsafa, some of whom held ideas incompatible with the Sunnah, became targets of criticism from many traditionalist Muslims, though other traditionalists such as Ibn al-Nafis made attempts at reconciling reason with revelation and blur the line between the two.

However Saladin rejected the widespread belief of divine punishment and instead blamed Muslims for committing a series of errors in their policies (regarding social stability) and on the battlefield.

Eventually, the Mongols and Turks that settled in parts of Persia, Central Asia, Russia and Anatolia converted to Islam, and as a result, the Ilkhanate, Golden Horde and Chagatai Khanates became Islamic states.

In many instances, Mongols assimilated into various Muslim Iranian or Turkic peoples (for instance, one of the greatest Muslim astronomers of the 15th century, Ulugh Beg, was a grandson of Timur).
By the time the Ottoman Empire rose from the ashes, the Golden Age is considered to have come to an end.


Decline
According to the traditional view of Islamic civilization, which had at the outset been creative and dynamic in dealing with issues, it began to struggle to respond to the challenges and rapid changes it faced from the 12th century onwards, towards the end of the Abbassid rule; despite a brief respite with the new Ottoman rule, the decline apparently continued until its eventual collapse and subsequent stagnation in the 20th century.
Some scholars such as M. I. Sanduk believe that the declination began from around the 11th century and still continued after this.
Some other scholars have come to question the traditional picture of decline, pointing to a continuing and creative scientific tradition through to the 15th and 16th centuries, with the works of Ibn al-Shatir, Ulugh Beg, Ali Kuşçu, al-Birjandi and Taqi al-Din considered noteworthy examples. This was also the case for other fields, such as medicine, notably the works of Ibn al-Nafis, Mansur ibn Ilyas and Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu; mathematics, notably the works of al-Kashi and al-Qalasadi; philosophy, notably Mulla Sadra’stranscendent theosophy; and the social sciences, notably Ibn Khaldun’s Muqaddimah (1370), which itself points out that though science was declining in Iraq, Al-Andalus andMaghreb, it continued to flourish in Persia, Syria and Egypt during his time. Nevertheless, many agree that there was still a decline in scientific activity after the 16th

Despite a number of attempts by many writers, historical and modern, none seem to agree on the causes of decline.
The main views on the causes of decline comprise the following: political mismanagement after the early Caliphs (10th century onwards), foreign involvement by invading forces and colonial powers (11th century Crusades, 13th century Mongol Empire, 15th century Reconquista, 19th century European colonial empires), and the disruption to the cycle of equity based on Ibn Khaldun’s famous model of Asabiyyah (the rise and fall of civilizations) which points to the decline being mainly due to political and economic factors.

North Africa’s Islamic civilization collapsed after exhausting its resources in internal fighting and suffering devastation from the invasion of the Arab Bedouin tribes of Banu Sulaymand Banu Hilal.

The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century.
Plague epidemics kept returning to the Islamic world up to the 19th century.
There was apparently an increasing lack of tolerance of intellectual debate and freedom of thought, with some seminaries systematically forbidding speculative metaphysics, while polemicdebates in this field appear to have been abandoned after the 14th century. A significant intellectual shift in Islamic philosophy is perhaps demonstrated by al-Ghazali’s late 11th century polemic work The Incoherence of the Philosophers, which lambasted metaphysical philosophy in favor of the primacy of Revelation, and was later criticized in The Incoherence of the Incoherence by Averroes.

Institutions of science comprising Islamic universities, libraries (including the House of Wisdom), observatories, and hospitals, were later destroyed by foreign invaders like the Crusaders and particularly the Mongols, and were rarely promoted again in the devastated regions. Not only was not new publishing equipment accepted but also wide illiteracy overwhelmed the devastated lands, especially in Mesopotamia.

Meanwhile in Persia, due to the Mongol invasions and the plague, the average life expectancy of the scholarly class in Persia had declined from 72 years in 1209 to 57 years by 1242.

American economist Timur Kuran has argued that economic development in the Middle East lagged behind that of the West in modern times due to the limitations of Islamic partnership law and inheritance law. These laws restricted the growth of Middle Eastern enterprises, and prevented the development of corporate forms.
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Old Friday, March 20, 2015
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Default Adminstration under Abbasid Caliphate:

Adminstration under Abbasid Caliphate:

Caliph:
Absolute Monarchy
He was head of state
Defender of faith
Dispenser of justice
Leader in prayer
Supreme Commander
They restored rule of Quran & sunnah
At first they consulted Ulema in state matters.
Ulemas were appointed at high judicial offices.
Under al mamun a Council of state or Shura was established.


The wazir
Next to Caliph there was Wazir
He was probably Persian Origin Wazir excercised his civil authority.

Qazi excercised his judicial authority.

Ameer had military powers.

Five Boards or Diwans

Diwan al Aziz:
Highest body in central govt.
Presided by grand Wazir.

Diwan ul kharaj:
Finance department,master of taxes.

Diwan al Rasail:
Secretaries of state .
Recording , Sealing , dispatching , Caliph Orders ,letters,political correspondence.

Diwan ul Barid:
Intelligence ,postal , Espionage, Secret reports.
Headed by postmaster general.

Diwan ul Tawaqi(Board of requests):
To register and seal with royal seal and motto letters and records of caliph.


Other Departments:

Diwan ul Jund: Dealing with pensions and stipends.

Diwan for Military Equipments Inspection:

Diwan for Slaries: Salaries of court official,repairs of places,stables.

Police or shurta department: in each town:

Muhtasib or public censor: In town Markets.


Judicial Systems: Supereme Importance

3 Kinds of Courts:

Civil Court for muslims.
Civil courts for non muslims.
Criminal courts.


Qazi must be a well versed in Fiqh or Muslim law.
Every town had Qazi.

Qazi ul Quzzat in Baghdad(Chief Justice)


Provincial Adminstration:

Provinces were divided in 20 provinces.

1. Lower Iraq
2. Al Jazira upper Iraq
3. Syria Palestine
4. Egypt
5. Qayrowan
6. Hijaz and Yamamah
7. Yemen
8. Oman and Bahrain Basra Capital
9. Ajam Persia
10. Isfahan
11. Azerbaijan
12. Tabriz
13. Farris south Persia
14. Kirman
15. Makran
16. Khurassan
17. Sugd central Asia
18. Khwarizm
19. Armenia
20. Tabaristan

Provincial officials:

Governor Wali: Appoited by caliph or Wazir.
He was supreme commander of forces.
He excercised all powers in provinces as caliph in center.
Presided Friday prayers.

Diwan Khraj:
Diwan Rasid:
Diwan Barid:


Further every Diwan in center had corresponding Diwan or official in provinces.
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Default Revenue System of the Abbasids

Revenue System of the Abbasids


Efficient Revenue Adminstration than Umayyads.
Abolished distinction between Arab and non Arabin matter of taxes.
Jizya only on non muslims.
Kharaj on all landowners.

Sahih al Kharaj was chief of Finance department.

Wide network of taxe collection existed in provinces and divided sub divided into various parts and districts.

Sources of Revenue:

1. zakat
2. Jizya
3. Kharaj land tax.
4. khums 1/5 spoil of war.
5. Usher Custom duties.
6. Salt and fishery taxes.
7. trade taxes on shopkeepers.
8. 1/5 of mines and pastures.
9. Tolls on borders.
10. Tax on mills.

Zakat,Sadqas and Usher were spent on poor,orphans,widows and needy.
Jizya,kharaj were spent on salariesof officials, canal,public utilities and other public works.

Total Revenue:
Under Haroon 539 Million Dirhams a year.
Under mamun 4000 Million Dirhams a year.
Under Mutasim 426 Million Dirhams a year.
Under mutawakkil 338 Million Dirhams a year.

Assessment Methods of Taxes or kharaj.
Assessment by land type.
Assessment by amount of produce.
Permanent Settlement on leases and guarantee.(Muqatta system)
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Default

i want to ask something
do we have to give introduction, background and at the end critical analysis too?
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