• Novel: Most important and popular literary medium. Deals the relations between loneliness and love.

• Modern Novel: Realistic as opposed to idealistic, psychological.

• Realistic: Consider truth to observe facts about outer world, about his own feelings.

• Idealistic: Create pleasant and edifying picture.

• Psychological: Nature of consciousness and its relation to time, made difficult to think of consciousness, tends to see it as altogether fluid, existing, story becomes unreal and unsatisfactory,

Origin of the term: William James coined the phrase to describe the flux of the mind, its continuity and yet its continuous change.

Consciousness: An amalgam of that we have experienced and continue to experience. Every thought is a part of the personal consciousness, unique and ever-changing. We seem to be selective in our thoughts, selectively attentive or inattentive, focussing attention on certain objects and areas of experience, rejecting others, totally blocking others out.

• Means of escape from tyranny, indicate the precise nature in a limited time, gives a complete picture of a character both historically and psychologically.
• A technique that reveals the character completely historically as well as psychologically.
• Development in character which is difficult.
• Character can be presented outside time and place.
• First represents the presentation of conscious from chronological sequence of events, and then investigates a given state of mind so completely.

Previous methods: Two different methods were adopted in the delineation of character.

(i) Personalities of characters emerge from a chronological account of events and reactions to it as in Hardy’s The Mayor of Casterbridge.

(ii) First a descriptive portrait of the character is given and the resulting actions and reactions elaborate that picture as in Trollope’s Barchester Towers.

• “Stream of consciousness” novelist is responsible for an important development, dissatisfied with these traditional methods.
• Impossible to give a psychological accurate account of a man, interested in dynamic aspects rather than static.
• Present moment is specious denoting the ever fluid passing of the ‘already’ into the ‘not yet’, gives the reaction to a particular experience at the moment but also his previous and future reactions.

The immediate ancestors of the modern English novel, who dominated the earlier part of the 20th century, were Wells, Bennet, Conrad, Kipling and Forster.
Most intellectual, looked upon as a teacher, prophet, guide, revolutionary, insisted in discarding the classical humanism in favour of science and biology and replacement of Latin and Greek by World History, no respect for accepted conventions, untouched by sentiments, no loyalty to the past.

Three divisions: He wrote

• Scientific romance --- unrivalled, masterpieces of imaginative power, look at life from distant point.

1. The Time Machine (1895)
2. The Island and Dr. Moreau (1896)
3. The War of the Worlds’ (1898): Theme of the invasion of Earth by Mars.
4. When the Sleeper Wakes (1899)
5. The First Man in the Moon (1901)
6. The Food of the Gods (1904)

• Domestic novels --- Thoroughly familiar with the life.

1. Kipps (1905): Comedy of class instincts, full of satire and humour.
2. Tono Bungay (1909): Disintegration of English society, advent in new class, a satire on commercial advertising.
3. Anna Veronica (1909): Study of modern young woman.
4. Love and Mrs. Lewisham (1910): Realistic, humorous, sympathetic studies of lower class.
5. The History of Mr. Polly (1910): Realistic, humorous, sympathetic studies of lower class.

• Sociological novels --- Social problems confronting the men of his time

1. The New Machiavelli (1911): Story of political and sociological creeds.
2. Mr. Britling sees it Through (1916): Reaction of people to World War I.
3. The Undying fire (1919): Religious and satiric fantasy.
4. Mr. Blettsworthy on Rampole Island (1928)
   
5. The Autocracy of Mr. Parham (1930): An attack on capitalism.
   

Greatest weakness: Too much scientific minded, lacked spiritual wisdom.



A literary experimenter drawn chiefly to realism, the slice-of-life approach fiction, naturalistic, copyist of life, he indirectly plays the role of a commentator, an interpreter, an apologist.

His Aim: To record life, its delights, indignation and distress.

His Novels: An instrument of moral and social reforms, compelled to select relevant and significant things and reject irrelevant and insignificant to determine the nature of his picture of life, delightful style, characters spend their times in the Staffordshire pottery towns.

Spectacle of life: Not drab or diseased, sweet, exquisite, blissful, melancholy. Never regrets at the loss of its glamour, find grandeur in the modern life.

Background: Social and historical with considerable skill.

Three most popular novels: Novels of people in drab surroundings.

• The Old Wives’ Tale (1908)
  
• Clayhanger (1910)
• Riceyman Steps (1923)
  

Other:

• The Grand Babylon Hotel (1902): Good entertainment.
• Buried alive (1908): First rate humorous character novels.
• The Card (1911): First rate humorous character novels.

Untouched of the pessimism of the age.

Characters: No background, move from country to country, emphasis is more on their mental and emotional reactions.

Main Contribution: Use of narrative at second hand.

His Novels:

• The Spoil of Poynton (1896): Love for antique.
• The Europeans (1897): Clash between the American and European mind.
• What Masie Knew (1897): Introduction of modern society devoid of sentiment.
• The Golden Bowl (1905): Psychological complications.
• The Sense of the Past (1917): Love for antique.

Wrote an exquisite English, lover of fellow creatures, a sailor, developed the plots through a third person making the voice and personality of the narrator extremely suggestive apart from the story.

Influenced:

1. Henry James: Artistic rectitude, psychological subtlety.
2. Flaubert & Maupassant: French novelist, attitude of detachment, acute observation of environment.
3. Turgenev & Dostoevsky: Composition outlook, love for portraying characters who are in conflict with themselves, frustrated by their own passions and impulses.

Themes: Transcend temporary and material interests, scorned to expose social abuses or to laugh at social prejudice.

Characters: Strange people beset by obsession of cowardice, egoism or vanity, not refined or fashionable, slave to their own habits, tormented souls, border on tragedy.

Merit: Lies in his descriptive power that provides touch of realism, exhibits great ideals of impartiality, practical wisdom, sense of fitness and freedom from sentimentality.

Masterpieces:

• The Nigger of the Narcissus (1898)
• Lord Jim (1900)
• Typhoon (1902)
• Nostromo (1904)

These novels cover an immense range of human activities, man’s conflict with internal sea, avarice for fabulous wealth in mine, tribal wars between savages.

• Almayar’s folly (1895)
• Heart of Darkness (1902)
• The Secret Agent (1907)
• Under Western Eyes (1911)

Admired as the strong brave, silent man, slightly wistful admiration of the intellectual, knowledge was superficial, excellent techniques and rich in vocabulary.

Derivation of material: From experiences in India as in Plain Tales from the Hills, Under the Deodars and Soldiers Three.

Important novels:

• The Light that Failed (1890): Artist---gone blind and lost his love.
• The Naulakha (1892): Morality, woman’s place in the home.
• Captain Courageous (1897): Story of a miserable dull boy.
• Kim (1901): Well-defined central character travelling through circumstances towards a goal.

Belong to upper class so find it easy to describe the life of inherited wealth, a reformer, true artist, dramatist, man of generous impulses.

Function of literature: To reform society.

Theme: Balance between opposed ideas or between characters with opposite tenderness, found in his novels collectively called The Forsyte Saga.

Earlier novels:

• The Island Pharisees: Theme.
• The Man of Property (1906):Balance between mechanical mind of Soames Forsyte and the impulsive Irene.
• The Country House (1907): Balance between imaginative Squire and his perspective, compassionate wife.
• Fraternity (1909) and The Patrician (1919): Balance between the tolerant and the advocates of ‘an eye for an eye’.

Later novels: First World War changed his attitude, lost sympathy with young, restless, trouble spirits.

• In Chancery (1920)
• To Let (1921)
• The White Monkey (1924)
• The Silver Spoon (1931)

Pioneer, humanist replaced by moralist and disciplinarian pillar of institutions, criticized his earlier days.




Belong to group of elder novelist, moralist, belonged to the tradition of cultural liberalism, admired in early years but later become generally reflective.

Aim of the civilized life: To enhance the quality of personal relation not by pomp and power and aggressiveness but by gentle and quiescent qualities.

Characters: Ordinary persons of middle-class life, moved by accidents.

Characteristics: Conflict between good and evil, between cruel, philistine & unperceiving and the good which is lively, entertaining and sensitive. Humorous development with the combination of body and spirit, reason and emotion, work and play, architecture and scenery, laughter and seriousness. Extraordinary lightness of touch and sensitive spirit, never weak or sentimental, unexpected and sudden death of the characters, distinctions between civilized and barbarism.

• A Passage to India (1924): Gives genuine picture of Indians and English during the British rule, personal relations, barriers of civilization---race, creed and caste.

• When Angles Feared to Tread (1905): Contrast between two cultures---English and Italian, contrast between two Italian cultures---idealistic and practical.

• In the Longest Journey (1907): Contrast, friendship, unhappy marriage, falsehood and sham, and of good life.

• A Room with a View (1908): Contrast between self-understanding and self-deception, morality play.

• Howard’s End (1910): Contrast between civilized and uncivilized, great variety in incident and character, a symbol of plea that civilization depends on the people gifted with insight and understanding.

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The Me you have always known, the Me that's a stranger still.

Unique and extraordinary genius, searching for the secret places where real life is hidden, highly gifted, acutely responsive to observed details, symbolic and artistic temperament, born linguist, introduced and worked in the ‘stream of consciousness’ technique.

Important novels:

• The Dubliners (1914)

• A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916)

• Exiles (1918)

• Ulysses (1922): Masterpiece, epic, counterpart of Homer’s Odyssey, speech not action---a token of humanity, does not present to life.

Most distinguished writer, used ‘stream of consciousness’ technique, impressed by Ulysses, fine sense of language, gifted with poetic temperament, got experiences from books than from actual life.

Characteristics: Depicts the stuff of life, thought, feelings, and impressions.

Novels:

• The Voyage Out (1918): Meaning of life.

• Night and Day (1919): Conversation and introspections revealing the doubts and hesitations while facing the reality of experience.

• Jacob’s Room (1922): Meaning of experience, unsolved mystery.

• Mrs. Dalloway (1925): Long interior monologue.

• To the Lighthouse (1927): Reality.

• Orlando (1928): Liveliest, fantasy.

• The Years (1937): Simpler form of fiction

• Between the Acts (1941): Personal failure to write meaning from experiences.

Intellectual, lacks the imaginative power and poetic sensitivity

Novels: Essays, conversation strung on a thread of a plot, turned fiction into image of the dynamic world of ideas that underlies the changing outward society. In later years he was interested in mysticism and Eastern philosophy.

Early novels:

• Crome Yellow (1921): Touched with lyricism.

• Antic Hay (1923): Liveliest, rollicking satire.

• Those Barren Leaves (1925): Finely drawn characters, meaning of life.

These novels presented dangerously attractive doctrine of hedonism, social decadence, seductive charm, exploits scientific and literary vocabulary, middle-aged cultured voluptuaries.

Other:

• Point Counter Point (1928): Frustration, social decadence, cynicism, conflict between passion and reason, bitter disillusionment with society.

• The Brave New World (1923): Combination of scientific materialism and hedonism, new faith in spiritualism and Eastern philosophy, respect for the spirits, cynicism, describes a nightmarish 25th century.

• Eyeless in Gaza (1936): Quality of personality, oneness of life.

• Ends and Means (1938) & Grey Eminence (1940): Accepts the existence of supramundane reality, bound in the illusionary world through desire springing from self-hood.

• After Many a Summer Dies the Swan (1939): Cynicism, contrast between mysticism and science.

• Ape of essence (1948):

Original writer, passionate Puritan, brought new kind of poetic imagination, sex novelist, and rebel.

His novels:

• The White Peacock (1911): Lyrical note.

• The Trespasser (1912): Melodramatic.

• Sons and Lovers (1913): Myth and symbol, hope of collective and individual rebirth.

• The Rainbow (1915): Poetry and beauty

• Women in Love (1921): Obscene

• The Lost Girl (1920): Feeling for nature.

• Aeron’s Rod (1922): make comradeship and leadership.

• Kangaroo (1923) & The Bay in the Bush (1924): Theme of male comradeship and leadership.

• Plumped Serpent (1926): Lawrence turns his back on everything.

• Lady Chatterley’s Lover (1928): Sex theme.

__________________
The Me you have always known, the Me that's a stranger still.

Novelist, dramatist, short story writer, naturalistic.

Important novels:

• Liza of Lambeth (1897): Naturalistic, Picture of life.

• Of Human Bondage (1915): Portrays a character that drifts, outdated views, belief in the meaninglessness of life, autobiographical account of loneliness.

• The Moon and Sixpence (1919): Life of Paul Gauguin, examination of character without root.

• Cakes and Ale (1930): Real life is lost between public and private masks, witty, Malicious, satirical, comedy, highly entertaining.

• The Razor’s Edge (1944): Maugham seeks the meaning of life.

Revived the sane and vital telling of a story in The Good Companion, having a great defect of being too sentimental.

Other novels are:

• Let the People Sing (1939)
• Daylight on Saturday (1943)
• Bright Day (1946)

Philosophical approach.

Important novels:

• Portrait in the Mirror (1929)
• The Fountain (1932)
• Sparkenbroke (1936)
• The Voyage (1940)
• The Judge’s Story (1947)

Chief books:

• The Problem of Pain (1940)
• The Screwtape Letters (1942)
• The Great Divorce (1945)
• Miracles (1947)

Evolved a use of English effective in the development of prose style.

Important novels:

• A House of Women (1936)
• Spella Ho (1938)
• Fair Stood the Wind for France (1944)
• The Cruise of the Bread Winner (1946)
• The Purple Plain (1947)

Inevitability of the power of emotions.

Theme: Life after death with firm views.
Structure: Religious.

Important novels:

• On the Night of the Fire (1939)
• The Sound of the Winter (1940)
• A Fragment of Glass (1947)
• Mist on the Waters (1948)

Culture is a living force in his novels.
Man---essentially good, but flamed by evil.

Important novels:

• The Man Within (1929)
• Stamboul Train (1932)
• England Made Me (1935)
• Brighton Rock (1938)
• The Power and the Glory (1940)
• The Heart of the Matter (1948)

Later Novels:

• The Quiet American (1955)
• Our Man in Havana (1958)
• A Burnt Out Case (1961)
• The Human Factor (1978)
• Monsignor Quixote (1982)

World War II turned already establish writer toward traditional values.


Detached and amiable appreciation of people, quite satisfying treatment of life and its significance.

Well-known novels:

• Nocturne (1917)
• The Georgian House (1932)
• The Doctor’s Wife Comes to Stay (1950)

Concerned with contemporary life.

Important novels:

• High Summer (1931)
• The Porch (1937)
• The Room Within
• The Sample
• The Other Side

Most significant post-war novelist.

Important novels:

• Lord of the Flies (1954): Savagery, religious theme of original sin.

• Pincher Martin (1956)

• Rites of Passage (1980)

• The Paper Man (1983)

Golding was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1983.



Satirist.

Important novels:

• The Road to Wigan Pier (1937)

• Homage to Catalonia (1938)

• Animal Farm (1945): Karl Marx theory, powerful anti-communist satire.

• Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949): Attack on totalitarianism.

Scientist, novelist.

• The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution (1959): Non-fiction, argument.

• Lewis Eliot: Series, noted for careful analysis of bureaucracy and the corrupting influences of power.

Old generation writer.

• Under the Volcano (1947): Nightmare world of an alcoholic Englishman in Mexico.

Published five novels prior to the war.

• A Dance to the Music of Time (1951-1975): 12-novel series, satiric survey of British society, from 1920s to1960s, portrayed in the lives of young men.

Angry Young Men: The literature of the 1950s was as varied as at any time, but much of it was made notable by the appearance of a new breed of writers called the ANGRY YOUNG MEN. This phrase wasoriginally taken from the title of LeslieAllen Paul'sautobiography, Angry Young Man (1951).The word angry is probably inappropriate; dissentient or disgruntled perhaps is more accurate. The group not only expressed discontent with the staid, hypocritical institutions of English society-the so-called Establishment-but betrayed disillusionment with itself and with its own achievements. Most of these were of lower middle-class or working class backgrounds. Although not all personally known to one another they had in common an outspoken irreverence for the British class system and the pretensions of the aristocracy. They strongly disapproved of the elitist universities, the Church of England, and the drabness of working-class life.

Writers: English writers of the 1950s whose heroes share certain rebellious and critical attitudes toward society.In the 1960s these writers turned to more individualized themes and were no longer considered a group.

• Look Back in Anger (1956): Trend of the period was crystallized.

• Hurry on Down (1953): Trend of the period was crystallized.

• Room at the Top (1957)

• Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1958)

Best writer of 50s, realist, humanist attempting to put the writer’s talent in the service of society.

• Lucky Jim (1953): Social discontent, crystallized trend.

• That Uncertain Feeling (1955):

• Take A Girl Like You (1960):

• Girl, 20 (1971):

• Stanley and the Women (1984): Virulently antifeminist.

• The Old Devils (1986): Won the Booker Prize.

Foremost novelist of the generation.

Her Books:

• Under the Net (1954)
• The Red and the Green (1965)
• The Sea, the Sea (1978)
• Nuns and Soldiers (1980)

Crisis of the educated British middle-class after World War I was his subject.

• The Wrong Set (1949): Collection of short stories, portrays the emotional crisis of World War two.

• Hemlock and After (1952): His first and the best.

Fictional explorer of modern dilemmas combining wit, moral, earnestness and touches of bizarre.

• A Clockwork Orange (1962): Comic and violent.

• Ender by Outside (1969)

• Earthly Powers (1980)

• The End of the World News (1983)

• The Kingdom of the Wicked (1985)

Her novels concerned with the people involved in social and political upheavals of 20th century.

• Children of violence: A series of five novels begins with Martha Quest (1952) and ends with The Four-Gated City (1969) a vision of the world after nuclear disaster.

• Canopus in Argos: Archives (1979): Science-fiction sequence.

Human Fantasy:

• The Ballad of Peckham Rye (1960)
• The Girls of Slender Means (1963)

Sinister Nature:

• The Mandelbaum Gate (1965)
• The Driver’s Seat (1970)
• Not to Disturb (1971).

Religious thoughts and sexual comedy:

• The Only Problem (1984)

Best known:

• Memento Mori (1959)
• The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1961).

After 1975 there were several intentionally experimental novels such as The White Hotel (1981) by D.M.Thomas (1935) and Midnight Children (1981) by Salman Rushdie (1947). Rushdie’s later novel The Satanic Verses (1988) prompted Iran’s Ayatollah Khomeini to issue a death threat against the author, because the book was considered blasphemous by Muslims. But the more traditional literature persisted in popularity. Anita Brookner (1928) wrote carefully crafted and unpretentious fiction in A Start in Life (1981) and Hotel du Lac (1984).

The later generation of satirical writers included Martin Amis (1949), the son of Kingsley Amis. His novels included Money (1984), London Fields (1989) and Time’s Arrow (1991). Julian Barnes (1946) wrote Flaubert’s Parrot (1984) and A History of the World in 101/2 Chapters (1989).

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The Me you have always known, the Me that's a stranger still.