CLASSICAL THEORY OF REALISM:


1) Introduction:

The story of realism more often begins with a mythical tale of the idealist or utopian writers of the inter-war period (1919-39), writing in the aftermath of WW I, the idealists, a term that realist writers have retrospectively imposed on the interwar scholars, focused much of their attention on understanding the cause of war so as to find a remedy for its existence. It is the most debated and dominant theory of IR. It provides the most powerful explanation for the state of war which is the regular condition of life in the international system. It can be found in theory form since 18th and 19th century but was revived after WW II. Post second WW era was the era of Realism. its main features were Cold War, Arms race, Super power rivalry, proliferation of arms (nuclear and conventional) and struggle of power not only b/w superpowers but also b/w other regions and states.

Robert H Jackson writes in “The Globalization of World Politics”: “Statecraft was theorized by Machiavelli (1469-1527), particularly in his classic study of The Prince, as an instrumental foreign policy outlook in which political virtue was equated with astuteness in the development and employment of state power, and political vice with a Christian faith in justice, honour, glory, fortune, necessity, and above all virtue – in the strictly secular sense of adroit statecraft – are central ideas for Machiavelli and other renaissance political commentators. These ideas form an important part of what has come to be known as the classical theory of realism.”


2) Defining Realism:

I. Realism in IR is “set of ideas which take into account the implications of security and power factors.”

II. “IRs as anarchic relations exist among sovereign political states. These states recognize no supreme international judge or referee. They revolt to war to protect their vital interests.”

III. “Realism considered IR as a struggle for power. Realists argue that the adaptation of legalistic and moralistic behaviour in IR tends to run contrary to the forces of nature and results either in defeatism or in fierce and crusading spirit. They consider game of international politics revolve around pursuit of power; acquiring it, increasing it, projecting it and using it to bent other to one/s will.”

IV. “Realists are often political conservatives. According to them people are self-interested and selfish by nature and seek to dominate others. They cannot be dependent on to cooperate and will stop cooperating when its not in their narrow and immediate interest.”

V. “The basic assumption underlying realist theory is perpetual existence of conflict among nations in one form or the other. This is taken as fixed doctrine. Thus contest for power is going on and can neither be controlled nor regulated by international law or world government or international organizations. Thus realism unequivocally accepts the permanence of the struggle of power as its guiding principle.”

VI. Realism identifies the group as the fundamental unit of political analysis.


3) Important writers of realism:

Thomas Hobbes, Machiavelli, George Kennen, Hans Morgenthau and Henry Kissinger.

Thomas Hobbes considered international politics “a war of all against all”.
Morgenthau in ‘politics among nations’, ”international politics is a struggle for power, power is always the immediate aim.”


4) Six Principles of Morgenthau:

I. Objective laws of human nature: these laws provide a certainty and confidence in predicting rationale political behaviour.

II. National interest:

III. National interests are dynamics: interest is not fixed and can be molded according to environment.

IV. Universal moral principles: moral principles should be modified according to the circumstances and situations.

V. Pursue of national interest: ‘Protection and achievement of national interest are the main objective of every actor of IR.’

VI. Independent political sphere: as the sphere of economists, lawyers and educationists is autonomous political actors also think in terms of interest as economist in term of utility.


5) George Kennen:

He also underlines the importance of national interest as a reliable guide to international policy but with equal importance given to moral consideration. Unlike Morgenthau who completely ignored moral aspect.


6) Criticism:

I. Ambiguous theory: there is no definition of power.

II. Power & national interest:

III. Power is not sole objective:

IV. Power isn’t end in itself: Morgenthau says, “Power is a mean and an end in itself.”

V. Non-political relations:

VI. Human nature:

VII. Is this peace?


NEO-REALISM (SCHOOL OF THOUGHT)


1) Introduction:

For more academics, neo-realism refers to Kenneth Waltz’s ‘Theory of International Politics’ where he emphasized the importance of the structure of the international system and its role as primary determinant of state behaviour. Most scholars and policy makers use neo-realism to describe a recent or updated version of realism.


2) Structural realism:

Waltz’s theory of structural realism is only one version of neo-realism. Waltz neo-realism is distinctive from traditional or classical realism in number of ways.

I. Realism is primarily an inductive theory. International politics is explained by looking at the actions of the states in the system e.g. decision of Pakistan and India to test nuclear weapons would be explained by looking at the influence of the military leaders in both states and the long-standing differences compounded by geographic proximity. According to Waltz, structure of international system shapes all foreign policy choices. Structure is defined by ordering principle of international system, which is anarchy and the distribution of capabilities across units which are states.

II. The second difference is found in their view of power. To realists it is an end in itself and they consider military power, economic resources and technology as most obvious elements of a state’s power. For neo-realists, power is more than accumulation of military resources. They see power as combined capabilities of a state. Power gives a state a place or position in international system that shapes its behaviour.

III. The difference is each one’s view on how states react to the condition of anarchy. To Realists, anarchy is a condition or system and states react to it according to size, location, domestic politics and leadership. Neo-realists suggest that anarchy defines the system. All states are functionally similar units meaning that they all experience same constraints presented by anarchy. They explain differences in policy by differences in power.


3) Core assumptions of neo-realists:

I. States interact in an anarchic environment. There is no central authority to enforce rules and norms or protect the interests of larger global community.

II. Structure of the system is a major determinant of actor behaviour.

III. States are self-interest oriented, and an anarchic and comparative system pushes them to favour self-help over cooperative behaviour.

IV. States are rationale actors, selecting strategies to maximizing benefits and minimizing losses.

V. The most critical problem presented by anarchic is survival.

VI. States see all other states as potential enemies and threats to national security. This distrust and fear creates security dilemma and this motivates the policies of states.

Note: (consult 'The Globalization of World Politics')