CSS Forums - Definition of Some Isms

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[FONT=Tahoma][B]socialism[/B][/FONT][FONT=Tahoma] [/FONT]

[FONT=Tahoma]System of social organization in which private property and the distribution of income are subject to social control; also, the political movements aimed at putting that system into practice.

Because "social control" may be interpreted in widely diverging ways, socialism ranges from statist to libertarian, from Marxist to liberal. The term was first used to describe the doctrines of [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Fourier,%20Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie-%20Charles/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Charles Fourier[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Saint-Simon,%20Claude-%20Henri%20de%20Rouvroy,%20comte%20de/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Henri de Saint-Simon[/COLOR][/URL], and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Owen,%20Robert/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Robert Owen[/COLOR][/URL], who emphasized noncoercive communities of people working noncompetitively for the spiritual and physical well-being of all (see [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,utopian%20socialism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]utopian socialism[/COLOR][/URL]). [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Marx,%20Karl%20Heinrich/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Karl Marx[/COLOR][/URL] and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Engels,%20Friedrich/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Friedrich Engels[/COLOR][/URL], seeing socialism as a transition state between [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,capitalism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]capitalism[/COLOR][/URL] and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,communism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]communism[/COLOR][/URL], appropriated what they found useful in socialist movements to develop their "scientific socialism." In the 20th century, the Soviet Union was the principal model of strictly centralized socialism, while Sweden and Denmark were well-known for their noncommunist socialism. See also [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,collectivism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]collectivism[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,communitarianism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]communitarianism[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,social%20democracy/"][COLOR=#0000ff]social democracy[/COLOR][/URL]. [/FONT]
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[FONT=Tahoma]Relation of human beings to God or the gods or to whatever they consider sacred or, in some cases, merely supernatural.[/FONT]
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Archaeological evidence suggests that religious beliefs have existed since the first human communities. They are generally shared by a community, and they express the communal culture and values through myth, doctrine, and ritual. Worship is probably the most basic element of religion, but moral conduct, right belief, and participation in religious institutions also constitute elements of the religious life. Religions attempt to answer basic questions intrinsic to the human condition (Why do we suffer? Why is there evil in the world? What happens to us when we die?) through the relationship to the sacred or supernatural or (e.g., in the case of [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Buddhism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Buddhism[/COLOR][/URL]) through perception of the true nature of reality. Broadly speaking, some religions (e.g., [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Judaism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Judaism[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Christianity/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Christianity[/COLOR][/URL], and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Islam/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Islam[/COLOR][/URL]) are outwardly focused, and others (e.g., [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Jainism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Jainism[/COLOR][/URL], Buddhism) are inwardly focused.[/FONT]
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[FONT=Tahoma][B]philosophy[/B][/FONT][FONT=Tahoma] [/FONT]

[FONT=Tahoma]Critical examination of the rational grounds of our most fundamental beliefs and logical analysis of the basic concepts employed in the expression of such beliefs.[/FONT]
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Philosophy may also be defined as reflection on the varieties of human experience, or as the rational, methodical, and systematic consideration of the topics that are of greatest concern to humanity. Philosophical inquiry is a central element in the intellectual history of many civilizations. Difficulty in achieving a consensus about the definition of the discipline partly reflects the fact that philosophers have frequently come to it from different fields and have preferred to reflect on different areas of experience. All the world's great religions have produced significant allied philosophical schools. Western philosophers such as [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Aquinas,%20Saint%20Thomas/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Thomas Aquinas[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Berkeley,%20George/"][COLOR=#0000ff]George Berkeley[/COLOR][/URL], and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Kierkegaard,%20S%C3%B8ren%20Aabye/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Søren Kierkegaard[/COLOR][/URL] regarded philosophy as a means of defending religion and dispelling the antireligious errors of [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,materialism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]materialism[/COLOR][/URL] and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,rationalism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]rationalism[/COLOR][/URL]. [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Pythagoras/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Pythagoras[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Descartes,%20Ren%C3%A9/"][COLOR=#0000ff]René Descartes[/COLOR][/URL], and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Russell,%20Bertrand%20Arthur%20William,%203rd%20Earl%20Russell/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Bertrand Russell[/COLOR][/URL], among others, were primarily mathematicians whose views of reality and knowledge were influenced by mathematics. Figures such as [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Hobbes,%20Thomas/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Thomas Hobbes[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Rousseau,%20Jean-Jacques/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Jean-Jacques Rousseau[/COLOR][/URL], and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Mill,%20John%20Stuart/"][COLOR=#0000ff]John Stuart Mill[/COLOR][/URL] were mainly concerned with [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,political%20philosophy/"][COLOR=#0000ff]political philosophy[/COLOR][/URL], whereas [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Socrates/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Socrates [/COLOR][/URL]and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Plato/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Plato[/COLOR][/URL] were occupied chiefly by questions in [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,ethics/"][COLOR=#0000ff]ethics[/COLOR][/URL]. The [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,pre-Socratics/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Pre-Socratics[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Bacon,%20Francis,%20Viscount%20St.%20Albans/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Francis Bacon[/COLOR][/URL], and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Whitehead,%20Alfred%20North/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Alfred North Whitehead[/COLOR][/URL], among many others, started from an interest in the physical composition of the natural world. Other philosophical fields include [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,aesthetics/"][COLOR=#0000ff]aesthetics[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,epistemology/"][COLOR=#0000ff]epistemology[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,logic/"][COLOR=#0000ff]logic[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,metaphysics/"][COLOR=#0000ff]metaphysics[/COLOR][/URL], philosophy of [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,mind,%20philosophy%20of/"][COLOR=#0000ff]mind[/COLOR][/URL], and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,philosophical%20anthropology/"][COLOR=#0000ff]philosophical anthropology[/COLOR][/URL]. See also [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,analytic%20philosophy/"][COLOR=#0000ff]analytic philosophy[/COLOR][/URL]; [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Continental%20philosophy/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Continental philosophy[/COLOR][/URL]; [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,feminist%20philosophy/"][COLOR=#0000ff]feminist philosophy[/COLOR][/URL]; philosophy of [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,science,%20philosophy%20of/"][COLOR=#0000ff]science[/COLOR][/URL]. [/FONT]
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[FONT=Tahoma]Loyalty and devotion to one's [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,nation/"][COLOR=#0000ff]nation[/COLOR][/URL] or country, especially as above loyalty to other groups or to individual interests.[/FONT]
[FONT=Tahoma]Before the era of the nation-state, the primary allegiance of most people was to their immediate locality or religious group. The rise of large, centralized states weakened local authority, and society's increasing secularization weakened loyalty to religious groups, though shared religion
along with common ethnicity, political heritage, and history
is one of the factors that draws people together in nationalist movements. Early nationalist movements in 18th-and early 19th-century Europe were liberal and internationalist, but they gradually became more conservative and parochial. Nationalism is considered a major contributing cause of World War I, World War II, and many other wars of the modern era. In Africa and Asia in the 20th century, nationalist movements often arose in opposition to [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,colonialism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]colonialism[/COLOR][/URL]. After the fall of the Soviet Union, powerful nationalist sentiments in eastern Europe and the former Soviet republics contributed to ethnic conflicts, such as those in the territories of the former Yugoslavia. [/FONT]
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[FONT=Tahoma][B]New Nationalism[/B][/FONT][FONT=Tahoma] [/FONT]

[FONT=Tahoma]American political policy espoused by [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Roosevelt,%20Theodore/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Theodore Roosevelt[/COLOR][/URL].[/FONT]
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Influenced by Herbert Croly's [I]The Promise of American Life[/I] (1910), Roosevelt used the phrase in a speech in which he tried to reconcile the liberal and conservative wings of the Republican Party. New Nationalism called for federal intervention to promote social justice and the economic welfare of the underprivileged. In 1912, as the presidential candidate of the [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Progressive%20Party/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Progressive Party[/COLOR][/URL], Roosevelt ran unsuccessfully on a platform based on the precepts of New Nationalism. See also [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,La%20Follette,%20Robert%20Marion/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Robert La Follette[/COLOR][/URL]. [/FONT]
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[FONT=Tahoma][B]black nationalism[/B][/FONT][FONT=Tahoma] [/FONT]

[FONT=Tahoma]U.S.[/FONT][FONT=Tahoma] political and social movement aimed at developing economic power and community and ethnic pride among African Americans.[/FONT]
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It was proclaimed by [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Garvey,%20Marcus%20Moziah/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Marcus Garvey[/COLOR][/URL] in the early 20th century, when many U.S. black nationalists hoped for the eventual creation of a separate black nation in Africa. In the 1960s and '70s, [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Muhammad,%20Elijah/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Elijah Muhammad[/COLOR][/URL] and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Malcolm/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Malcolm X[/COLOR][/URL] preached the ideal of black nationalism as an alternative to assimilation into the predominantly white culture of the U.S.[/FONT]
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[FONT=Tahoma][B]colonialism[/B][/FONT][FONT=Tahoma] [/FONT]

[FONT=Tahoma]Control by one power over a dependent area or people.[/FONT]
[FONT=Tahoma]The purposes of colonialism include economic exploitation of the colony's natural resources, creation of new markets for the colonizer, and extension of the colonizer's way of life beyond its national borders. The most active practitioners were European countries; in the years 1500–1900, Europe colonized all of North and South America and Australia, most of Africa, and much of Asia by sending settlers to populate the land or by taking control of governments. The first colonies were established in the Western Hemisphere by the Spanish and Portuguese in the 15th–16th century. The Dutch colonized Indonesia in the 16th century, and Britain colonized North America and India in the 17th–18th century. Later British settlers colonized Australia and New Zealand. Colonization of Africa only began in earnest in the 1880s, but by 1900 virtually the entire continent was controlled by Europe. The colonial era ended gradually after World War II; the only territories still governed as colonies today are small islands. See also [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,decolonization/"][COLOR=#0000ff]decolonization[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,dependency/"][COLOR=#0000ff]dependency[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,imperialism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]imperialism[/COLOR][/URL].[/FONT]
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[FONT=Tahoma][B]imperialism[/B][/FONT][FONT=Tahoma] [/FONT]

[FONT=Tahoma]State policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas.

Because imperialism always involves the use of power, often in the form of military force, it is widely considered morally objectionable, and the term accordingly has been used by states to denounce and discredit the foreign policies of their opponents. Imperialism in ancient times is clear in the unending succession of empires in China, western Asia, and the Mediterranean. Between the 15th century and the middle of the 18th, England, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain built empires in the Americas, India, and the East Indies. Russia, Italy, Germany, the United States, and Japan became imperial powers in the period from the middle of the 19th century to World War I. The imperial designs of Japan, fascist Italy, and Nazi Germany in the 1930s culminated in the outbreak of World War II. After the war the Soviet Union consolidated its military and political control of the states of eastern Europe (see [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Iron%20Curtain/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Iron Curtain[/COLOR][/URL]). From the early 20th century the U.S. was accused of imperialism for intervening in the affairs of developing countries in order to protect the interests of U.S.-owned international corporations (see [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,United%20Fruit%20Co./"][COLOR=#0000ff]United Fruit Co.[/COLOR][/URL]). Economists and political theorists have debated whether imperialism benefits the states that practice it and whether such benefits or other reasons ever justify a state in pursuing imperialist polices. Some theorists, such as [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Machiavelli,%20Niccol%C3%B2/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Niccolò Machiavelli[/COLOR][/URL], have argued that imperialism is the justified result of the natural struggle for survival among peoples. Others have asserted that it is necessary in order to ensure national security. A third justification for imperialism, offered only infrequently after World War II, is that it is a means of liberating peoples from tyrannical rule or bringing them the blessings of a superior way of life. See also [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,colonialism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]colonialism[/COLOR][/URL]; [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,sphere%20of%20influence/"][COLOR=#0000ff]sphere of influence[/COLOR][/URL]. [/FONT]
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[FONT=Tahoma][B]idealism[/B][/FONT][FONT=Tahoma] [/FONT]

[FONT=Tahoma]In [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,metaphysics/"][COLOR=#0000ff]metaphysics[/COLOR][/URL], the view that stresses the central role of the ideal or the spiritual in the constitution of the world and in mankind's interpretation of experience.[/FONT]
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Idealism may hold that the world or reality exists essentially as spirit or consciousness, that abstractions and laws are more fundamental in reality than sensory things, or, at least, that whatever exists is known to mankind in dimensions that are chiefly mental
that is, through and as ideas. Metaphysical idealism asserts the ideality of reality; epistemological idealism holds that in the knowledge process the mind can grasp only its own contents. Metaphysical idealism is thus directly opposed to [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,materialism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]materialism[/COLOR][/URL], and epistemological idealism is opposed to [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,realism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]realism[/COLOR][/URL]. Absolute idealism (see [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Hegel,%20Georg%20Wilhelm%20Friedrich/"][COLOR=#0000ff]G. W. F. Hegel[/COLOR][/URL]) includes the following principles: (1) the everyday world of things and persons is not the world as it really is but merely as it appears in terms of uncriticized categories; (2) the best reflection of the world is in terms of a self-conscious mind; (3) thought is the relation of each particular experience with the infinite whole of which it is an expression; and (4) truth consists in relationships of coherence between thoughts, rather than in a correspondence between thoughts and external realities (see [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,coherentism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]coherentism[/COLOR][/URL]). See also [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Berkeley,%20George/"][COLOR=#0000ff]George Berkeley[/COLOR][/URL]. [/FONT]
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[FONT=Tahoma][B]realism[/B][/FONT][FONT=Tahoma] [/FONT]

[FONT=Tahoma]In the visual arts, an aesthetic that promotes accurate, detailed, unembellished depiction of nature or of contemporary life.[/FONT]
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Realism rejects imaginative idealization in favour of close observation of outward appearances. It was a dominant current in French art between 1850 and 1880. In the early 1830s the painters of the [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Barbizon%20school/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Barbizon[/COLOR][/URL] school espoused realism in their faithful reproduction of the landscape near their village. [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Courbet,%20Gustave/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Gustave Courbet[/COLOR][/URL] was the first artist to proclaim and practice the realist aesthetic; his [I]Burial at Ornans[/I] and [I]The Stone Breakers[/I] (1849) shocked the public and critics with their frank depiction of peasants and labourers. In his satirical caricatures, [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Daumier,%20Honor%C3%A9%20-Victorin/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Honoré Daumier[/COLOR][/URL] used an energetic linear style and bold detail to criticize the immorality he saw in French society. Realism emerged in the U.S. in the work of [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Homer,%20Winslow/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Winslow Homer[/COLOR][/URL] and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Eakins,%20Thomas/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Thomas Eakins[/COLOR][/URL]. In the 20th century German artists associated with the [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Neue%20Sachlichkeit/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Neue Sachlichkeit[/COLOR][/URL] worked in a realist style to express their disillusionment after World War I. The Depression-era movement known as [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Social%20Realism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Social Realism[/COLOR][/URL] adopted a similarly harsh realism to depict the injustices of U.S. society. See also [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,naturalism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]naturalism[/COLOR][/URL]. [/FONT]
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In literature, the theory or practice of fidelity to nature or to real life and to accurate representation without idealization of everyday life.[/FONT]
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The 18th-century works of [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Defoe,%20Daniel/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Daniel Defoe[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Fielding,%20Henry/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Henry Fielding[/COLOR][/URL], and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Smollett,%20Tobias%20George/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Tobias Smollett[/COLOR][/URL] are among the earliest examples of realism in English literature. It was consciously adopted as an aesthetic program in France in the mid-19th century, when interest arose in recording previously ignored aspects of contemporary life and society; [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Flaubert,%20Gustave/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Gustave Flaubert[/COLOR][/URL]'s [I]Madame Bovary[/I] (1857) established the movement in European literature. The realist emphasis on detachment and objectivity, along with lucid but restrained social criticism, became integral to the novel in the late 19th century. The word has also been used critically to denote excessive minuteness of detail or preoccupation with trivial, sordid, or squalid subjects. See also [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,naturalism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]naturalism[/COLOR][/URL]. [/FONT]
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In philosophy, any viewpoint that accords to the objects of human knowledge an existence that is independent of whether they are being perceived or thought about.[/FONT]
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In the metaphysical debate concerning [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,universal/"][COLOR=#0000ff]universal[/COLOR][/URL]s, realism is opposed to nominalism, which denies that universals have any reality at all (except as words), and to conceptualism, which grants universals reality but only as concepts in the mind. Against [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,idealism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]idealism[/COLOR][/URL] and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,phenomenalism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]phenomenalism[/COLOR][/URL], realism asserts the independent existence of material objects and their [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,quality/"][COLOR=#0000ff]qualities[/COLOR][/URL]. Similarly, moral realism holds that the moral qualities of things and actions (such as being good or bad, right or wrong) belong to the things or actions themselves and are not to be explained in terms of the subject's feelings of approval or disapproval. In opposition to conventionalism, realism holds that scientific theories are objectively true (or false) based on their correspondence (or lack of it) to an independently existing reality. [/FONT]
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[COLOR=#333399][FONT=Tahoma][B]realism [I](as used in expressions)[/I][/B][/FONT][/COLOR][FONT=Tahoma] [/FONT]

[FONT=Tahoma][URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,magic%20realism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]magic realism[/COLOR][/URL][/FONT]
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[URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,magical%20realism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]magical realism[/COLOR][/URL][/FONT]
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[URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,New%20Realism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]New Realism[/COLOR][/URL][/FONT]
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[FONT=Tahoma][B]communism[/B][/FONT][FONT=Tahoma] [/FONT]

[FONT=Tahoma]Political theory advocating community ownership of all property, the benefits of which are to be shared by all according to the needs of each.[/FONT]
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The theory was principally the work of [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Marx,%20Karl%20Heinrich/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Karl Marx[/COLOR][/URL] and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Engels,%20Friedrich/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Friedrich Engels[/COLOR][/URL]. Their [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Communist%20Manifesto/"][COLOR=#0000ff]"Communist Manifesto"[/COLOR][/URL] (1848) further specified a "dictatorship of the [URL="bword://proletariat/"][COLOR=#0000ff]proletariat[/COLOR][/URL]," a transitional stage Marx called [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,socialism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]socialism[/COLOR][/URL]; communism was the final stage in which not only class division but even the organized state seen by Marx as inevitably an instrument of oppression[/FONT]
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would be transcended (see [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Marxism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Marxism[/COLOR][/URL]). That distinction was soon lost, and "communist" began to apply to a specific party rather than a final goal. [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Lenin,%20Vladimir%20Ilich/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Vladimir Ilich Lenin[/COLOR][/URL] maintained that the proletariat needed professional revolutionaries to guide it (see [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Leninism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Leninism[/COLOR][/URL]). [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Stalin,%20Joseph/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Joseph Stalin[/COLOR][/URL]'s version of communism (see [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Stalinism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Stalinism[/COLOR][/URL]) was synonymous to many with [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,totalitarianism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]totalitarianism[/COLOR][/URL]. [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Mao%20Zedong/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Mao Zedong[/COLOR][/URL] mobilized peasants rather than an urban proletariat in China's communist revolution (see [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Maoism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Maoism[/COLOR][/URL]). European communism (see [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Eurocommunism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Eurocommunism[/COLOR][/URL]) lost most of its following with the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991). See also [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Communist%20Party/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Communist Party[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,dialectical%20materialism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]dialectical materialism[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,First%20International/"][COLOR=#0000ff]First International[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Second%20International/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Second International[/COLOR][/URL]. [/FONT]
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[FONT=Tahoma][B]War Communism[/B][/FONT][FONT=Tahoma] [/FONT]

[FONT=Tahoma](1918–21) Soviet economic policy applied by the [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Bolshevik/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Bolshevik[/COLOR][/URL]s during the [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Russian%20Civil%20War/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Russian Civil War[/COLOR][/URL].

Its chief features were the expropriation of private business and the nationalization of industry, as well as the forced requisition of surplus grain and other food products from the peasantry. These measures caused a rapid decline in agricultural production, labour productivity, and industrial output. Real wages declined by two-thirds, and uncontrolled inflation made paper currency worthless. By 1921 public discontent resulted in strikes and protests, culminating in the [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Kronshtadt%20Rebellion/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Kronshtadt Rebellion[/COLOR][/URL]. In response, the Bolsheviks adopted the less-radical [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,New%20Economic%20Policy/"][COLOR=#0000ff]New Economic Policy[/COLOR][/URL]. [/FONT]
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[FONT=Tahoma][B]National Socialism[/B][/FONT][FONT=Tahoma] [/FONT]

[I][FONT=Tahoma]or [B]Nazism[/B][/FONT][/I]
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Totalitarian movement led by [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Hitler,%20Adolf/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Adolf Hitler[/COLOR][/URL] as head of Germany's [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Nazi%20Party/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Nazi Party[/COLOR][/URL] (1920–45).

Its roots lay in the tradition of Prussian militarism and discipline and German Romanticism, which celebrated a mythic past and proclaimed the rights of the exceptional individual over all rules and laws. Its ideology was shaped by Hitler's beliefs in German racial superiority and the dangers of communism. It rejected liberalism, democracy, the rule of law, and human rights, stressing instead the subordination of the individual to the state and the necessity of strict obedience to leaders. It emphasized the inequality of individuals and "races" and the right of the strong to rule the weak. Politically, National Socialism favoured rearmament, reunification of the German areas of Europe, expansion into non-German areas, and the purging of "undesirables," especially Jews. See also [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,fascism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]fascism[/COLOR][/URL]. [/FONT]
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[FONT=Tahoma][B]fascism[/B][/FONT][FONT=Tahoma] [/FONT]

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Philosophy of government that stresses the primacy and glory of the state, unquestioning obedience to its leader, subordination of the individual will to the state's authority, and harsh suppression of dissent.[/FONT]
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Martial virtues are celebrated, while liberal and democratic values are disparaged. Fascism arose during the 1920s and '30s partly out of fear of the rising power of the working classes; it differed from contemporary communism (as practiced under [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Stalin,%20Joseph/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Joseph Stalin[/COLOR][/URL]) by its protection of business and landowning elites and its preservation of class systems. The leaders of the fascist governments of Italy (1922–43), Germany (1933–45), and Spain (1939–75)
[URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Mussolini,%20Benito%20Amilcare%20Andrea/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Benito Mussolini[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Hitler,%20Adolf/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Adolf Hitler[/COLOR][/URL], and [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,Franco,%20Francisco/"][COLOR=#0000ff]Francisco Franco[/COLOR][/URL]
were portrayed to their publics as embodiments of the strength and resolve necessary to rescue their nations from political and economic chaos. Japanese fascists (1936–45) fostered belief in the uniqueness of the Japanese spirit and taught subordination to the state and personal sacrifice. See also [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,totalitarianism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]totalitarianism[/COLOR][/URL]; [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,neofascism/"][COLOR=#0000ff]neofascism[/COLOR][/URL]. [/FONT]
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[FONT=Tahoma][B]materialism[/B][/FONT][FONT=Tahoma] [/FONT]

[FONT=Tahoma]In [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,metaphysics/"][COLOR=#0000ff]metaphysics[/COLOR][/URL], the doctrine that all of reality is essentially of the nature of matter.

In the philosophy of [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,mind,%20philosophy%20of/"][COLOR=#0000ff]mind[/COLOR][/URL], one form of materialism, sometimes called central-state materialism, asserts that states of the mind are identical to states of the human brain. In order to account for the possible existence of mental states in creatures that do not share the human nervous system (e.g., octopuses and Martians), proponents of functionalism identified particular mental states with the functional or causal roles those states play with respect to other physical and mental states of the organism; this allows for the "multiple realizability" of the same mental state in different physical states. (Strictly speaking, functionalism is compatible with both materialism and non-materialism, though most functionalists are materialists.) As a form of materialism, functionalism is "nonreductive," because it holds that mental states cannot be completely explained in terms that refer only to what is physical. Though not identical with physical states, mental states are said to "supervene" on them, in the sense that there can be no change in the former without some change in the latter. "Eliminative" materialism rejects any aspect of the mental that cannot be explained wholly in physical terms; in particular, it denies the existence of the familiar categories of mental state presupposed in [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,folk%20psychology/"][COLOR=#0000ff]folk psychology[/COLOR][/URL]. See also [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,identity%20theory/"][COLOR=#0000ff]identity theory[/COLOR][/URL]; [URL="bword://!!09HMK27M2P,mind-body%20problem/"][COLOR=#0000ff]mind-body problem[/COLOR][/URL]. [/FONT]
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:laugh: