measurement and production of low temperatures
 

for all those who are preparing this topic , i humbly ask for ur assistance and no book of physics is providing me anything on the topic. i have checked internet wikipedia university physics and tons of things but still nothing. i request all you guys , that if u have any info or source please share it with me ! i will be grateful

low temperature can be produced by the following way
a) the Joule-Kelvin Process (internal work method).
b) The adiabatic expansion (external work method).
c) the Joule expansion.
d) the adiabatic Demagnetisation

@ mitariq
can u give some details of above mention points

I think joule-kelvin and joule-thomson expansion and adiabatic expansion are all the same(used in liquification of gases .. Mr mitariq please explain what you have written..

other methods are
heat conduction ( i.e. using liquified gas)
very rapid evaporation through suction machines ..(only for liquids)
adibatic magnetization which uses paramagnetic salts to absorb heat ..
nuclear demagnetization (dont know its details )

The study of production of low temperatures is called cryogenics .. Regards