The Modern Age in the History of Europe

arsa · #1 Thursday, August 21, 2008

The birth of the Modern Age in the history of Europe resulted in a number of scientific inventions, geographical findings and revolutionary ideas. These affected not only the lives of the common Europeans, but it brought far-reaching changes in the whole of Europe.
The period of the Renaissance symbolizes the transition from the medieval world to the modern age. When Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, most of the scholars belonging to Greece took shelter in Italy. The ideas and thoughts of these scholars spread in Italy. Due to this a new wind of knowledge started to blow there. This encouraged perceptive people to question the out-moded attitudes of people and the blind acceptance of orders from the ruling authorities. It asserted the dignity of human beings and the personality of every individual.

Landmarks of the Renaissance
European Scholars revived the learning of Greek and Roman cultures. This appreciation contained the basic elements that brought about revolutionary changes in the socio-economic and political areas of Europe. In 1443, when these scholars took shelter in Italy, they contributed to the spread of ideas. These ideas were new modes of thought and different approaches to life. The very idea of blindly following authority (as in medieval times) was now questioned. Men started to look towards freedom and liberal ideas with great interest. They were no longer ready to suffer repression. They started asserting the dignity of man, his labor and appreciated his individualism.
i. Humanism and its Importance
The spirit of Humanism spread with the wave of "Modern learning" and classical liberalism. Every aspect of the ‘human person’ was studied in depth. The Medieval Church had discouraged progressive ideas on human affairs, and had strongly supported self-repression and asceticism.
The writings of Erasmus influenced men intensely. Through his writings he was successful in bringing about religious reform. He criticized the ignorance and credulity of monks though he himself became priest and doctor of sacred theology.
If the humanists were critical of the church and of Christianity as popularly practiced in Europe in the early 16th century, many were quite unsympathetic about the religious upheaval which later in the century, produced Protestantism and promoted religious intolerance and fanaticism. It was only Melanchthon, among these early humanists, who actually seceded from the Catholic Church. However, he was peculiarly compromising and was only a mild Protestant. Outside the universities the humanities were especially fostered by a new institution. This was the Academy, a voluntary association that arose in a particular city or locality in imitation of the ancient academy of Plato. It patronized the pursuit and publication of scholarly, literary and scientific studies.
ii. Culture and its Freedom
In the "Middle Ages" learning and culture were sectarian as the Christian church had dominance in the fields of art, science and letters. As a popular secular movement, the Renaissance helped to promote a spirit of individualism. At a certain point in time it also assumed the character of a revolt against the ecclesiastical monopoly on life and culture, thus, freeing the latter from the vicious hold of the church. The spirit of critical inquiry and a wider outlook towards life resulted in the freedom from ecclesiastical tutelage.
iii. The Activities of Arts
Newer and livelier trends were developed in architecture, sculpture, music etc. The Renaissance focused attention on Pagan culture and all its aspects came under its direct influence. This led to the development of multi-dimensional arts. Michaelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Tiran etc. were some of the great artists of this age. Although their art was basically Christian, the Renaissance encouraged the adaptation of classical art forms.
iv. Popularity of Vernacular Literature
Latin was the language of scholars in the 'Middle Ages.' It was not easily intelligible to the masses. The common people required a simple medium for understanding higher knowledge. This resulted in the growth of a national vernacular literature all over Europe. A big boost was thus given to the popularization of vernacular literature. The modern theology of scholars was now made available to the common masses.
The Italians, Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio etc. were the great poets and writers of this age. They produced immortal works that continue to influence writers today. Italy was the first nation to produce great men of letters. In England it was Chaucer who worked hard to make 'standard English.' Martin Luther, in Germany, translated the Bible into German and drafted his own views in the German language. In France, Rabelais enriched the vernacular literature.
v. Scientific Growth and Development
Science took long strides in the new age, as people now accepted as true only that which seemed was logical. As they came in contact with Arabs, they learnt modern mathematics and chemistry. Newton formulated his theory of Gravitation. Scientists and the intelligentsia laid the foundation of natural and experimental science. Besides, traditional beliefs upheld by the Church about various natural phenomena were also shattered. The belief that the Earth is the Center of the Solar System was demolished. Copernicus scientifically proved that the Earth, instead of being the center, is a planet revolving round the Sun. Galileo popularized this theory of Kepler.
The study of Astronomy was also made more precise. It was developed on the basis of the observation of natural phenomenon. It was Francis Bacon who held that slow and laborious observation was necessary before any general principles could be assumed. This was a result of the spirit fostered by the humanists.
vi. Changes in Political Areas
Slowly the feudalism of the middle ages began to give way to absolute monarchies in Europe. The invention of gunpowder deprived the nobles of their privileged position. Previously they were called upon to lend political or military support to the king in time of crises. With the modern discoveries and inventions in the area of sciences even the political stage underwent a remarkable change. Kings gradually began to absorb the political power so far exercised by the nobles. They could now establish a centralized government in most provinces to wield to authority.
The spirit of Nationalism also started to grow along with the rise of monarchies. The ‘voice’ of the common man was now more clear and effective. A sense of unity among people started to develop. But the roots of class formation also took place; in which common people began opposing class interests. Many small and big groups and associations in Europe combined their interests with that of the nations and their interests became national.
vii. Socio-Economic Changes
Trade and commerce revived and improved in an orderly political atmosphere. During the barbarian invasions in 15th century Europe, trade and commerce were badly ruined. It was only after the barbarian influx receded that Europe could flourish economically. As new trunk routes were made modern, cities were established with urban communities. Besides this, classes were formed in society, where the middle class was more prominent, comprising business class people.
With the projection of a class-based society, a new era in Europe began, which uprooted the land tenure system. The middle class (the bourgeoisie), the intelligent business class people became wealthy. They took the political (local) machinery into their hands and clashed with traditional feudal landlords.
viii. Geographical Discoveries
Politically Europe could see the dawn of the Modern Age due to the geographical discoveries that took place. Essential factors behind these geographical discoveries were:
(a) Spread of Religion.
(b) Economic and commercial reasons.
(c) Adventurous nature.
Some important navigators were Sebastian Cabot, Magellan, Vasco da Gama etc.

Vasco da Gama, in 1498, reached Goa through his route to India. An Englishman, Sebastian Cabot landed in America. Magellan, a Portuguese in Spanish service was famous for his expedition around the world. Africa was discovered. Prince Henry of Portugal dedicated his life towards encouraging the exploration of his countrymen.
ix. Scientific Inventions and Discoveries
Some of the essential discoveries and inventions of the Modern Age that helped to modernize the lives of the people were:
Invention of the (Mariner’s) magnetic compass: This instrument was used by navigators. It helped them to locate their direction right in the middle of the sea. As this compass marked the two poles (north and south), it helped them to choose the correct direction. Traders and travelers in the Middle Ages had no means to conduct their sea travels through safe courses. Due to the invention of the magnetic compass, an era of adventurous navigation began.
The Invention of gun powder: With the making of gunpowder, the art of warfare in Europe was modernized. This helped kings to strengthen their defense provisions. It made the crown independent and reduced the dependency of the crown on nobles.
The Art of Printing: Soon after Europe entered the Modern Age, the art of modern printing was discovered. Due to this, the scope of education broadened, and very soon modern learning reached every corner of Europe. Acquiring knowledge became easier and a ground for the latest ideas was created. This helped to bring about changes in almost all walks of human life.
Factors that brought about the Renaissance
When Europeans came into contact with the Arabs, who were more learned and highly educated then the Europeans, they gained knowledge of astronomy, astrology and mathematics. The Arabs also taught Greek philosophy. Europeans learned this scientific and logically based knowledge of the Arabs and expanded their knowledge of these subjects. This basic knowledge was understood, translated and transmitted to the local folks of Europe by the learned scholars of Europe. This caused a wave of modern thought and a spirit of inquiry among the Europeans (who were in the process of transition).
A number of social and political thinkers emerged. They were staunch believers in scientific research and logical facts. They pleaded against the supremacy and authority of the Church, which till then had played an important role in the lives of the people. These thinkers were against the forceful beliefs of the old literature, which was out of the intellectual reach of ordinary man. This Church literature could only be interpreted by priests and learned scholars of Latin language.
Roger Darber was one such thinker who stressed that one should accept something as true only if it were proved by scientific facts and logical understanding. He appealed for free thought and desired to liberate mankind from conservative ideas. There were many other thinkers like him who devoted their lives whole-heartedly to the search of facts.
It was scientifically proved that the position of the Sun was fixed and definite and that planets (like the earth) moved around it. Due to this new idea, astronomers were severely punished by religious authorities who termed them ‘irreligious’ and inaccurate. The Church prosecuted them and they were also severely punished.
With the invention of the modern printing technique a revolution in learning and writing was caused in Europe. Paper was introduced and affordable books were printed in Europe. Now even a lay person in Europe could get knowledge about modern knowledge, learning and ideas. Besides these, even the ‘Holy Bible’ was translated by these thinkers in many local languages of Europe. As a result, religious texts became accessible to lay persons without the help of the priests. The supremacy of the Church reduced and people were made to think in the light of modern developments. This created a lasting impression on the minds of the people.
Renaissance in Italy
Renaissance has been defined as the "discovery of world and of man." The Greek scholars provided a strong impetus to the interest in the Greco-Roman culture. The study made by these scholars of the Greek language and ancient literature a new culture and modern mode of thought and life. It refuted the very idea of blind obedience that carried on in medieval age. These scholars who took refuge in Italy were greatly impressed by their classical treasure of literature. As far as the power of the Church was concerned, the strength of the Church remained intact. The Renaissance was not at all hostile to the Church, though it weakened the hold that it previously held on the hearts and minds of men.
The Greek language was accorded great respect at that time. It was taught in the universities of Italy.
Literature flourished in almost every part of Europe. But it began in Italy due to these scholars who began the revival from Italy. The writings of poets of Italy acquired great importance in the world. The Italian names cannot be forgotten in the areas of history, poetry and art. The names of Ariosto and Tasso shone in the field of poetry and Machiavelli is a historian who also wrote treatises on politics.
The era of the Renaissance is well associated with the achievements in the field of art, literature, music, architecture and painting. At the beginning of the movement it was Giotto and it reached its peak with Michaelangelo and Raphael. In every sphere of development the ancient revival took place with a special influence of Roman culture. However, Italian art was most revolutionary and original. For about more than two and half centuries many artists developed their knowledge in the art of painting and presented a new and modern sense to the Europe. This expression later on spread all over the world.
The Geographical Explorations of the 15th and the 16th Centuries
Geographical exploration holds a very important place in the history of Europe and even in the world history. It was due to these discoveries that the world became a smaller place. By the beginning of the 15th century, big ships were built and the magnetic compass was invented.
The goods from Asia were transported to Europe through the Red Sea via Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea. Although there was another route to Asia through the Gulf, owing to the monopoly of Arabs over it, it was very insecure to use. After the capture of Constantinople by the Turks even the land-routes were cut off. Now it became essential for Europeans to find out new and safe routes to Asia, because European trade flourished with Asia.
The spices of Asian countries had high commercial value in the Western world. The Portuguese took the lead but it was the Spanish took greater interest in this mission. Sailing around the Cape of Good Hope, Vasco da Gama landed in India around 1498. As a result of these discoveries the attitude of people broadened. The new life-style, latest discoveries and routes to new lands, etc. became the talk of the people. As these European people were exposed to the world. Due to the flourishing trade with these Asian countries the wealth of Europe also increased remarkably.

Columbus ‘discovered’ America, and the Spanish established their colonies in America. Later on other European countries also established their colonies in America like England, France, Holland etc.
On the other hand, the Portuguese came over to India, where they established their well-organized trade in Goa. Following their footsteps other European countries also came over to the East. Their aim was to monopolize the trade and other economic activities. Later on the intentions of these countries drifted towards the political sphere. As the country was not politically strong and stable, very soon they carved out a kingdom for themselves.
Practically a complete Renaissance was brought about in Europe as they toured the world. As they discovered America and Asia their wealth and economic condition improved and their political importance increased.
Impact of Geographical Discoveries
The discoveries in geographical areas brought about far-reaching effects on the minds and hearts of the people. Several people acutely felt the consequences of these. The impact of geographical discoveries that had far-reaching effects on the minds and hearts of the people as their life underwent complete changes in their socio-economic and political aspect.
The main area where the effect was noticed was in the intellectual area which was the root of the changes and which impacted other areas. As the discoveries expanded the learning and knowledge of the world the outlook and the attitude of men changed. When the ideas of the New World influenced the Europeans the effects were seen in their understandings of the human kind. The spirit of learning and inquiry brought revolutionary changes in the lives of the people throughout Europe.
The discoveries laid open a large wealth, both actual as well as potential of the new lands. This wealth helped them in participating in European wars and among maritime supremacy. Most of the wars taking place in 17th to 18th centuries that their cause in clash of interest and rivalries among nations. The main result of this was seen when the Europeans set to ‘Europeanize’ the humanity.
There were commercial and economic reasons behind the search of new lands. Due to this, the impact of the discoveries was greatest on the economic front. The rapid economic changes then brought about a commercial revolution. The impact of revolution was seen on the methods of commodities of trade the change in routes were even seen along with the method of their creation.
There is a popular belief among historians that "Rome was the hub of universe, Venice and Geneva the emporium of its trades and Florence the home of its arts and letters." The people started looking away from Italy and the Mediterranean, after the invasion by the Turks. Slowly the countries that were near the coast became important centers of commerce and business. Portugal and Spain became important gateways to the vast New World.
As the medieval moneylender could not meet the requirements of trade and commerce, the banking system was evolved. Joint stock companies also came into existence, which made large-scale operations possible.
The commercial ambitions of traders and merchants led the way for the establishment of colonies in Asia, Africa, America etc. With the establishment of colonies, there began the slave trade. This was mainly with the Africans. Later on the English as well as Dutch fostered it. The expansion of trade and commerce led to industrialization and modernization of agriculture.

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