Describe the social structure of France during the Old Regime?
France was a divine-right monarchy, in which the king's will was law.The society was organised into three classes called Estates.This traditional political and social system of France is know as the Old Regime.


Social Structure of France:
First Estate.
consisted of the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church
totaled less than 1 percent of population
still retained many privileges they had during Middle Ages
were exempted from taxes
could be tried only in Church courts
Church owned about a tenth of all French land
received enormous revenues from rents,taxes, and fees
most of this wealth was concentrated in higher clergy---archbishops,bishops,and abbots
some of these men had become lazy,worldly, and neglectful of their spiritual duties
they were targets of men like Voltaire, who aroused educated people against the Church
the lower clergy, made up of the parish priests,were poorly paid and overlooked

Second Estate.
consisted of nobles
totaled less than 2 percent of the population
many of them had specia; privileges that were carry-overs from medieval times
were exempted from the heaviest royal taxes
collected feudal dues of various kinds from the peasants
held the highest positiions in the army and government
as a class they were thoughtless,irresponsible,and extravagent.


Third Estate

all other people of France belonged to the Third Estate
totaled 97 percent of the population

Subdivision of Third Estate.

Bourgeeoisie were at the top
they were city-dwelling middle class
made up of merchants,manufacturers,doctors, and lawyers
many were people of wealth and education


below bourgeoise were the manual woekers-laborers and artisans-of the cities
recieved low wages
lived in poor, crowded quarters


At the bottom of the social scale and poorest of all were the serfas and the peasants
they paid the heaviest taxes and Church tithes
worked long and hard, lived in ignorance
only state taxes alone deprived them of half of their yearly income



Conclusion:

In the world of late 1700's, the three Estates of the Old regime represented a social structure that was outdated and unrealistic.
Those who benifited from it resisted even minor changes in the system.
Those who opposed it grew increasingly bitter
change came suddenly and violently in 1789.

Why did discontent grow in France beginning about the mid-1700's?

Inequality in the social system and inefficiency in government exited in France for a lond time.Beginning about the mid-1700's, however,discontent began to grow. There were two chief causes: bourgeoisie unrest and financial difficulties.


Bourgeoisie Unrest:
One might expect that opposition to the social system of France would arise first among the oppressed peasants, who bore heavy burdens, but this was not. rather, it began among the prosperous bourgeoisie.

middle class had become the most important economic group in France.
it owned nearly all of the productive wealth other than land.
it dominated trade,manufacturing, and banking.


Political grievances:
but the bourgeoisie did not have political power equal to their economic power
under the Old Regime they had no power at all
they resented the fact that they were socially inferior to the nobles or priests
Carnot (a bourgeoisie leader) said " the Old Regime drove us to revolution by giving us good education without opening any opportunities for our talents."

Mercantilism:

Another cause of bourgeoisie discontent was mercantilism. When the Commercial Revolution was beginning,businessmen had welcomed mercantilist ideas and practices.By the mid-1700's, however, these ideas and practices were less popular. The bourgeoisie now disliked mercantilist regulations governing wages,prices, and forgein trade.They also resented special monopolies granted to favored companies, and government interference with merchant's freedom to buy in foreign countries.


Thinkers' Influence on Bourgeoisie:
A middles class such as the French bourgeoisie is not usually revolutionary. But the bourgeoisie were influenced by such thinkers as Voltaire,Rousseau,and Montesquieu
The skeptical attitude of these writers toward privileged classes and traditional authority found an especially warm welcome among the French


American Revolution's Influence on Bourgeoisie:

Another strong influence was the American Revolution.Its success had a profound effect on the thinking of the French middles class.The Declaration of Independence, with its ideas about the equality of man and his right to control his own government, became a vivid inspiration.


France's Severe Economic Trouble:

France was in severe economic trouble in the mid-1700's.
wars of Louis XIV had left a huge debt.
the debt increased more by French assistance to the United States during the Revolutionary War.
the extravagant French court at Versailles cost vast sums of money.

France's debt was not as large as that of Great Britain. The trouble was that, even with heavy taxes, government revenues were always too low to meet expenses.Louis XV borroed more and more from the bankers( bourgeoisie). Warned that his actions endangered France, the king remarked cynically, "It will last my time," and "After me, the deluge."

__________________
There will always be a You-like hole in my life.

The French Revolution (1789-99) violently transformed France from a monarchical state with a rigid social hierarchy into a modern nation in which the social structure was loosened and power passed increasingly to the middle classes.


CAUSES

There is considerable controversy over the causes of the Revolution. Marxist scholars emphasize material factors: as the population increased, food supplies grew short; land had become divided into such small parcels that most Frenchmen lived close to the subsistence level; and after 1776 agricultural recession forced property owners to exploit their sources of revenue. Marxists also maintain that commercial prosperity had stimulated the growth of a monied middle class that threatened the position of the established landed aristocracy.


Other social historians emphasize the importance of the growing discrepancy between reality and the legally defined social structure, which distinguished men by hereditary or acquired rank and recognized corporate rather than individual rights. They also emphasize, however, the complexity of French society and question the importance of capitalism.

Political historians usually regard the weakness of the monarchy as a crucial factor. Nominally, the benevolent Louis XVI (r. 1774-92) was the absolute ruler of a united country. Actually, so many rights, or privileges, were retained by provinces, towns, corporate bodies, the clergy, and the nobility that the king had little freedom of action. Moreover, since offices in the legal and administrative system--and the noble rank that went with them--could be purchased and bequeathed as property, a new aristocracy of ennobled officials had developed. These men were able to monopolize profitable employment, to frustrate royal reforms, and to prevent the monarchy from raising taxes to meet the ever-increasing costs of government and of war. Some writers contrast the arbitrariness of the old regime with the desire, stimulated by the Enlightenment and the example of America, for reforms and more participation in government; curiously, few historians have attached much importance to the gradual growth of national consciousness.

The expense of the French participation in the American Revolution made fiscal reform or increased taxation imperative after 1783. Since no further revenue could be raised from a peasantry already overburdened by taxes and manorial dues, the royal ministers -- particularly Charles Alexandre de Calonne -- attempted to tax all landowners regardless of privileges. When this plan met with resistance in the law courts and provincial assemblies, the ministers tried to replace those bodies with more representative ones. In 1788 this led to the Aristocratic Revolt, a wave of defiance of "despotism" that compelled the ministers to agree to convene the States-General for the first time since 1614.


THE COURSE OF THE REVOLUTION



The Revolution of 1789

The first phase of the Revolution was marked by moral and physical violence. The States-General met in 1789 in Versailles but were paralyzed by the refusal of the Third Estate (the Commons) to meet separately as a distinct, inferior body. On June 17 the Commons took the crucial revolutionary step of declaring their assembly to be the National Assembly, thereby destroying the States-General. This first assertion of the sovereign authority of the nation soon inspired a popular rising in Paris, marked by the storming of the Bastille on July 14. Concurrently, urban and rural revolts occurred throughout France. Suspicions generated by the political crisis had aggravated the discontent aroused by the failure of the 1788 harvest and an exceptionally severe winter. The peasants pillaged and burned the chateaus of the aristocracy--an episode known as the Grande Peur ("Great Fear")--destroying the records of their manorial dues.

The National Assembly established a new legal structure by abolishing privileges, venality, and "feudal" obligations (August 4); formulating a Declaration of Rights (August 26); and specifying basic constitutional principles that left the king as the chief executive officer but deprived him of any legislative power except a suspensive veto. Louis's reluctance to sanction these decrees led to a second Parisian uprising, the so-called March of the Women. On October 5 a mob marched to Versailles and forced the king, who had to be protected by the revolutionary national guard under the marquis de Lafayette, to capitulate. Louis and his queen, Marie Antoinette, were moved immediately to Paris, followed by the Assembly. France thus became a constitutional monarchy, and legal distinctions between Frenchmen disappeared; but the king was practically a prisoner, and many people were permanently alienated by the pretensions of the Assembly and the prevailing disorder.

The Reconstruction of France

In 1789-91, a comparatively peaceful period, the National Assembly did much to modernize France. Despite the Declaration of Rights, the reformed franchise still excluded the poor; but the public maintained its faith in freedom and unity, as shown in the first Festival of Federation, a celebration of national unity on July 14, 1790. Bankruptcy was averted by the confiscation of ecclesiastical land, and the church and law courts were reconstructed to conform with a rational and uniform system of local government by elected councils. Dissension nevertheless developed as several drastic changes, such as the reorganization of the church by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790), followed in rapid succession. In 1791 the call for a clerical oath of loyalty crystallized the conflict between the new sovereignty and traditional loyalties and split the whole country.

When King Louis tried to escape from Paris (the flight to Varennes, June 20, 1791), civil war seemed imminent. The Assembly, however, retained control. A Parisian crowd, which had assembled to demand a republic, was dispersed by force on July 17, and Louis was reinstated after he had accepted the completed Constitution of 1791. The Revolution was then believed to be over, and the National Assembly was dissolved on September 30. In reality, however, religious and social strife had shattered the unity of the Third Estate.

The Revolution of 1792

In 1791-92 the hard-won constitution collapsed. On Apr. 20, 1792, the new Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria, which it believed to be instigating counterrevolutionary agitation and thus launched the French Revolutionary Wars. Louis, who looked to Austria for succor, vetoed emergency measures, and Austrian and Prussian forces invaded France. Insurrection broke out in Paris. On August 10 the palace was stormed, and Louis was imprisoned by a new revolutionary Commune of Paris. The Legislative Assembly, reduced to a "patriotic" rump, could only dispute the Commune's pretensions and order the election by manhood suffrage of a National Convention. Meanwhile, the invaders took Verdun, and alleged counterrevolutionaries were massacred in the prisons of Paris.

Foundation of the Republic

Born of this second revolution and briefly favored by military victory, the National Convention horrified Europe by establishing a republic (Sept. 22, 1792), inaugurating a policy of revolutionary war, and sending the king to the guillotine on Jan. 21, 1793. It also appalled France by its own furious disputes. A militant minority, the Montagnards, who spoke for Paris and the left-wing club called the Jacobins, demanded vigorous revolutionary measures. Their opponents, the Girondist leaders of the amorphous majority, looked to the provinces and hoped to consolidate the Revolution. In the spring of 1793, as the military and economic situation deteriorated and a savage royalist rising began in the Vendee region of western France, the Montagnards gained ground. Emergency bodies such as the Committee of Public Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal were then established, but unified leadership was lacking until the Parisian insurrection of June 2 compelled the Convention to expel the Girondists and accept Montagnard control.

The Reign of Terror, 1793-94

The Montagnard Convention then had to contend with invasion, royalist civil war, and widespread provincial revolts against "the dictatorship of Paris." Initially, Georges Danton tried to placate the provinces, and the democratic Constitution of 1793 was approved by plebiscite and celebrated at a Festival of Unity (August 10). After July, however, Maximilien Robespierre's influence prevailed, and armies were sent to subdue rebellious cities. When the city of Toulon voluntarily surrendered to the British, a demonstration in Paris compelled the National Convention to establish (September 5) the repressive regime known as the Terror. A fearful time ensued: the Committee of Public Safety strove to organize the economy and the war effort; the Revolutionary Tribunal sent state prisoners, including the Girondists, to the guillotine; and agents of the Convention known as Representatives of the People enforced bloody repression throughout France. A campaign of dechristianization, marked by a new Revolutionary Calendar computed from Sept. 22, 1792 (1 Vendemiaire, Year I), led to the closing of all churches on 3 Frimaire, Year II (Nov. 23, 1793).

From December 1793, when republican armies began to prevail, both at home and abroad, the Terror became identified with ruthless but centralized revolutionary government. Because dissidence was now classified as counterrevolutionary, moderate Montagnards such as Danton and extremists such as Jacques Rene Hebert, a leader of dechristianization, were guillotined early in 1794. The centralization of repression also brought innumerable victims before the Revolutionary Tribunal, whose work was expedited by the draconian Law of 22 Prairial (June 10). As a result of Robespierre's insistence on associating Terror with Virtue, his efforts to make the republic a morally united patriotic community became equated with the endless bloodshed. Finally, after a decisive military victory over the Austrians at Fleurus (June 26), Robespierre was overthrown by a conspiracy of certain members of the National Convention on 9 Thermidor (July 27, 1794). After trying in vain to raise Paris, the Robespierrist deputies and most members of the Commune were guillotined the next day, July 28.

The Thermidorian Reaction

During the ensuing period (1794-95) of the Thermidorian Reaction, government was so weakened that anarchy and runaway inflation almost overwhelmed the republic. In the southeast the royalists conducted a "white terror," and in Paris gangs of draft-dodgers, called la jeunesse doree ("gilded youth"), persecuted the patriots. Twice, in Germinal and Prairial (April and May, 1795), there were desperate risings demanding "Bread and the Constitution of 1793." Without the Montagnards and Jacobins, however, whose club was closed in November 1794, the sansculottes ("those without kneebreeches," the name given to extreme republicans) could achieve nothing, and the Convention broke the popular movement permanently with the aid of the army. The death (1795) of the imprisoned dauphin (titular King Louis XVII) and an unsuccessful royalist landing in Brittany also checked the reaction toward monarchy, enabling the Convention to complete the Constitution of 1795. This liberal settlement was approved by plebiscite, and it took effect after a reactionary rising in Vendemiaire (Oct. 5, 1795) had been suppressed by General Napoleon Bonaparte (the future Emperor Napoleon I) with what he described as "a whiff of grapeshot."

The Directory, 1795-99

The Constitution of 1795 established an executive Directory, two assemblies, and a property owners' franchise. Many provisions, including the initial derivation of two-thirds of the deputies from the Convention, guarded the republic against any reversion to either democratic Terror or monarchy. The only attempt to renew violent revolution, Francois Babeuf's communistic Conspiracy of Equals (May 1796), was easily thwarted; but executive weakness and the annual election of one-third of the deputies made stability unattainable.

In 1797 the directors purged the parliament ruthlessly, branding many deputies as royalists and sentencing them to the penal colony of French Guiana (called "the dry guillotine"). This coup d'etat of Fructidor (September 1797) was a devastating blow to all moderates. Thereafter, although administration improved and French power increased in Europe, coups against conservative or radical revivals occurred annually until 1799, when the Abbe Sieyes, determined to strengthen central authority, enlisted the aid of Bonaparte to effect the coup d'etat of Brumaire (November 9-10).

The Consulate, 1799-1804

The Constitution of 1799 established the Consulate with Bonaparte as First Consul. He used his power to effect a remarkable reorganization of France, most notably reestablishing centralized control and restoring Catholicism by the Concordat of 1801. Constitutional controls and republican institutions were nonetheless steadily eroded until the creation of the First Empire (1804-15) ended the revolutionary period.

CONSEQUENCES

The most concrete results of the French Revolution were probably achieved in 1789-91, when land was freed from customary burdens and the old corporate society was destroyed. This "abolition of feudalism" promoted individualism and egalitarianism but probably retarded the growth of a capitalist economy. Although only prosperous peasants were able to purchase land confiscated from the church and the emigrant nobility, France became increasingly a land of peasant proprietors. The bourgeoisie that acquired social predominance during the Directory and the Consulate was primarily composed of officials and landed proprietors, and although the war enabled some speculators and contractors to make fortunes, it delayed economic development. The great reforms of 1789-91 nevertheless established an enduring administrative and legal system, and much of the revolutionaries' work in humanizing the law itself was subsequently incorporated in the Napoleonic Code.

Politically, the revolution was more significant than successful. Since 1789 the French government has been either parliamentary and constitutional or based on the plebiscitary system that Napoleon inherited and developed. Between 1789 and 1799, however, democracy failed. Frequent elections bred apathy, and filling offices by nomination became commonplace even before Napoleon made it systematic. The Jacobins' fraternal--and Jacobin-controlled--community expired in 1794, the direct democracy of the sansculottes was crushed in 1795, and the republic perished in 1804; but as ideals they continued to inspire and embitter French politics and keep right and left, church and state, far apart.

The Revolution nevertheless freed the state from the trammels of its medieval past, releasing such unprecedented power that the revolutionaries could defy, and Napoleon conquer, the rest of Europe. Moreover, that power acknowledged no restraint: in 1793 unity was imposed on the nation by the Terror. Europe and the world have ever since been learning what infringements of liberty can issue from the concepts of national sovereignty and the will of the people.

__________________
There will always be a You-like hole in my life.

One of the questions that i have never been clear about is: Was Napoleon part of the French revolution or did his appearance on the scene end the revolution?

Somebody there to help????

__________________
There will always be a You-like hole in my life.

from what i have studied i think he ended the bloody era of revolution...before him the norm was that all those who were at the helm of affairs were sent to the gallows ...even some revolutionaries met with the same fate...it was he who ended this era ...and launched the directory...which was then replaced my consulate and finally he himself was emperor for life

Was Napoleon Bonaparte the Saviour or the Destroyer of the Ideals of the French Revolution?:



With all the glory and the splendour that some countries may have experienced, never has history seen how only only one man, Napoleon, brought up his country, France, from its most tormented status, to the very pinnacle of its height in just a few years time. He was a military hero who won splendid land-based battles, which allowed him to dominate most of the European continent. He was a man with ambition, great self-control and calculation, a great strategist, a genius; whatever it was, he was simply the best. But, even though how great this person was, something about how he governed France still floats among people's minds. Did he abuse his power? Did Napoleon defeat the purpose of the ideals of the French Revolution? After all of his success in his military campaigns, did he gratify the people's needs regarding their ideals on the French Revolution? This is one of the many controversies that we have to deal with when studying Napoleon and the French Revolution. In this essay, I will discuss my opinion on whether or not was he a destroyer of the ideals of the French Revolution.

Certain individuals approved of Napoleon's reign as the saviour of France. He finished and completed the Revolution by fulfilling the ideals the people of France demanded. A person such as one belonging to the bourgeoisie, or even a peasant would be very satisfied with the way Napoleon ruled over the country. He gave them equality, freedom, justice, and many rights. Such things never existed during the reign of the monarchs before Napoleon stepped in. A banker too would be very affirmative on how Napoleon had truly helped France in its economic problems. He made the franc the most stable currency in Europe, and the banker had witnessed that, as probably one of the bankers of the Bank of France. Another type of individual that agrees that Napoleon isn't the destroyer of the ideals of the Revolution would be his soldiers and generals. He had fought alongside with his men in many battles. Through inspiration, he gained their loyalty, to "follow him to the stars" if he asked them to. Such inspiration would never be gained if he never respected them, if he never treated them fairly. And then, the "Legion of Honour", which awarded to some certain citizens for their civil and military achievements. People like Jacques Louis David, the Pope, a lawyer, or even a student from a lycee would support the fact that Napoleon didn't destroy the ideals of the French Revolution.

On the contrary, many individuals blamed Napoleon for betraying the ideals of the French Revolution. They believed that he destroyed it by denying the French people the equality that they have waged the Revolution for. One big issue was how the women were treated during his reign. That was one of the few examples that the critics are criticizing Napoleon on. An individual such as Robespierre or Danton would have cut off Napoleon's head, if we assume Napoleon was active during the Reign of Terror. The Sans-culottes would be outraged by the fact that Napoleon was in agreement with Pope Pius VII to restore the Catholic religion and make it as France's main religion. A republican would be against Napoleon for sure because his main idea was to get rid of the monarchy. So as with the Jacobins, they would absolutely be against Napoleon's being the Emperor of France.

The French Revolution belongs to one of the most significant chapters in the book of the World's history. The revolution altered the Frenchmen's' lives from being oppressed to being free, from inequality to being equal, and from being disjointed to being unified. Napoleon strengthened these ideals even more when he reigned. However, critics argue over the fact that Napoleon is the destroyer of these ideals. Hereon, I will prove that Napoleon is the saviour of France.

Liberty, Equality and Fraternity - this is the Revolution's battle cry, and of course, the main ideals of why they waged the revolution. It is evident that this was what the people wanted. And Napoleon gave it to them. He upheld the ideals of the French revolution. He satisfied their hunger for liberty, equality, and fraternity.


Liberty:


Perhaps one of the most important and lasting contributions that Napoleon gave to the French people was the Civil Code or most widely known as the Napoleonic Code. This was written at a time in history when discrimination was rampant. It was then that Napoleon decided to liberate and offer Liberty, Equality and Fraternity to the Jews, Protestants, and other religions as well. He also opened the churches that were closed for years. In this part of the essay, I will talk most about how and why he promoted freedom of religion.

Napoleon Bonaparte was never that deeply religious. He showed that to everybody during his coronation as the Emperor of France: he took the crown from Pope Pius VII and placed it on his own head. That was a clear indication that religion had nothing to do with Napoleon's coronation. He wanted to prove that France chose him. But there was a contradiction to this when he allowed freedom of religion all over France. Why is this? Is he that religious? We've just seen how he clearly showed to everybody that religion has nothing to do with him being an Emperor. But, if we dig a little bit deeper, we can actually see that Napoleon didn't just think of himself when he made such laws. He wanted not only the Frenchmen to be happy, but also the Jews and other races. After he signed the Concordat, "churches of France reopened in April 1802, and the population of France rejoiced in this rejuvenation of Sunday services." (Century of Change, p. 57.) What about Judaism and other religions? Why did he allow that in France? It does not make sense, because he had nothing political to gain. However, these unanswered questions were soon revealed in a private conversation Napoleon had with his physician, Barry O'Meara, during his exile in St. Helena. The doctor asked why he was supporting the Jews. And I quote from Napoleon,

"My primary desire was to liberate the Jews and make them full citizens. I wanted to confer upon them all the legal rights of equality, liberty and fraternity as was enjoyed by the Catholics and Protestants. It is my wish that the Jews be treated like brothers as if we were all part of Judaism. As an added benefit, I thought that this would bring to France many riches because the Jews are numerous and they would come in large numbers to our country where they would enjoy more privileges than in any other nation. Without the events of 1814, most of the Jews of Europe would have come to France where equality, fraternity and liberty awaited them and where they can serve the country like everyone else." (Napoleonic Scholarship: The Journal of the International Napoleonic Society, Volume 1, Number 2, December 1998.)

That conversation Napoleon had with his physician alone proved undoubtedly that he actually promoted equality, liberty, and fraternity for France and for everybody.
The Napoleonic Code perhaps is one of the most astounding and significant achievements that Napoleon accomplished. It was through the Code that he promoted and strengthened the ideals of the Revolution. Determined to unify France into a strong modern nation, he pushed for a single set of written laws that applied to everyone. He made it clear, logical, and easily understood by everyone. This new code of laws applied equally to all French citizens regardless of what position they were in the society. It recognized that all men were equal in the eyes of the law. Not only were they equal before the law, but also, they were equal in taxation. Every single citizen had to pay the exact amount of tax that everybody paid. This was another example of equality among the people of France. However, there are always contradictions as to how Napoleon promoted equality among all people.


Equality:


Equality - 'did Napoleon practice this fully during his reign?' critics might ask. What are the things that Napoleon didn't do in regard to equality? Most people would say that he didn't protect the rights of women. However, during Napoleon's time, man's concept on women was that they should be protected. And one way of protecting them was not to give them too many responsibilities. Government involvement entails many responsibilities. That is why women were kept from getting involved. To them, the women were tailored to be homemakers and as such, should be sheltered from the dangers and problems that they might face if they were in the outside world. If we just dig a little bit deeper, it is not that Napoleon didn't think about women, but it is that he cared about them.


Fraternity:


Again, critics ask, 'what about fraternity?' Fraternity is brotherhood among men. They help each other out for the good of one thing - and in Napoleon's case, it was for the good of France. Fraternity was well shown during Napoleon's reign especially in his Grand Armee. These soldiers united together to defend France, to please France, to give glory and magnificence to France. These soldiers didn't have to be in Napoleon's army. They could have been businessmen, lawyers, merchants, and all the rest. They were never forced to join the Armee. As one article in the Napoleonic code says, there is freedom to choose one's work. But what drove these people to be involved in Napoleon's Grand Armee? One of Napoleon's soldiers quoted, "Faithful to our oath, we have not abandoned your eagles, and we are now without a country!... Sire, I beg of you, give us back our weapons..." - Jose Fernando (http://napoleonseries.org, 1995) Yes it was, brotherhood. It was for the love of France. Such brotherhood was what made France a stronger and unified country. What else did make France a stronger nation? It's the brotherhood of the people of France. Everybody's helping out. Everybody's cooperating. Never in Napoleon's reign did the people revolt. They helped each other instead. All of these things happened when Napoleon stepped on the throne.

Conclusion:


For this brilliant and ambitious man, who directed the destinies of France and Europe for some fifteen years, emerged as a historical "hero," not a person doing only good, but also a person that altered the course of history. No other figure, other than Caesar, Alexander the Great or Jesus Christ, has been the subject of more biographies than Napoleon. There would be others like him, but none so successful and none so respected historically. He gave France liberty by giving the Frenchmen rights, freedoms, and privileges that they asked for. He gave France equality by giving the Frenchmen the right to be taxed equally and the right to be equal before the eyes of the law. He gave France fraternity by unifying Her, by fighting for Her, and by helping each other, for the best of France.

Napoleon's reign ended the French Revolution. He completed it by practicing its ideals, and giving it administrative structure. His career was like that of a meteor, briefly lighting the night sky of France's history. Napoleon Bonaparte is undoubtedly the saviour of France.

"There was an eye to see in this man (Napoleon), and a soul to dare and do. He rose naturally to be King. All men saw that he was such." - Thomas Carlyle

Paper 1 (2000)

(A) Identify the following in short statements:

(1) Old Regime.

France before the French Revolution was a divine-right monarchy, in which the king's will was law.The society was organised into three classes called Estates. This traditional political and social system of France is known as the Old Regime.

(2) Josephine.

Joséphine de Beauharnais (23 June 1763 – 29 May 1814) was the first wife of Napoléon Bonaparte, and thus the first Empress of the French.


(3) Waterloo.

The defeat at Waterloo put an end to Napoleon's rule as Emperor of the French and marked the end of his Hundred Days' return from exile.

The Battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday 18 June 1815 near Waterloo in present-day Belgium, then part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. An Imperial French army under the command of Emperor Napoleon was defeated by combined armies of the Seventh Coalition.


(4) Pan-Slavisrn.


Pan-Slavism was a movement in the mid-19th century aimed at unity of all the Slavic peoples. The main focus was in the Balkans where the South Slavs had been ruled for centuries by other empires, Byzantine Empire, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Venice.


(5) Mazzini.


Giuseppe Mazzini (22 June 1805 – 10 March 1872), the "Soul of Italy,"[1] was an Italian patriot, philosopher and politician. His efforts helped bring about the modern Italian state[2] in place of the several separate states, many dominated by foreign powers, that existed until the 19th century.


(6) The Young Turks.

The Young Turks (Turkish: Jön Türkler (plural), from French: Les Jeunes Turcs), inspired by the Young Italy (Giovine Italia), were a coalition of various groups favouring reformation of the administration of the Ottoman Empire. The movement was against the monarchy of Ottoman Sultan and favoured a re-installation of the short-lived Kanûn-ı Esâsî constitution. They established the second constitutional era in 1908 with what would become known as the Young Turk Revolution.

(B) Fill in the Blanks:

(7) Cordelier Club in France was led by ______

Georges Danton

(8) Robes Pierre died in ______

28 July,1794


(9) ______ was the Foreign Secretary of England in 1815.

Castlereagh

(10) The Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi was signed between Turkey and ______

Russia and the Ottoman Empire in 1833, following the Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829.


(11) The first volume of Das Kapital was published in ______

1867

(12) Bismarck resigned in _______

March 1890

(C) Who made the following statements?

(13) "Men must be led by an iron hand in a velvet glove".

Napoleon

(14) "I have called a new world into existence to reduce the balance of the old".

George Canning

(15) "We shall finish the Piedmontese affairs as we did the Neapolitan".

Camillo Benso di Cavour

(16) "Out of mud (of Crimea) Italy will be made".

Camillo Benso di Cavour

(17) "Many paths led to my goal. I had to try all of them one after the other, the most dangerous at the end".

Bismarck

(D) Name the authors of the following books:

(18) An intellectual History of Modern Europe.

Marvin Perry

(19) The Age of Reason

Thomas "Tom" Paine

(20) The World Crisis.

Winston S Churchill

Paper-2 (2000)

8. Write only the correct answers in the Answer Book. Don’t reproduce the questions.

(1) The treaty signed between the Allied forces and Austria was:

(a) The Treaty of Versailles (b) The treaty of St.Germain (c) The Treaty of Neuilly.

(2) Who was appointed as Chairman of Revolutionary War Council by Lenin in 1918.

(a) Stalin (b) Trotsky (c) Kerensky

(3) The Fort of Verdun is situated in:

(a) Belgium (b) Germany. (c) France

(4) The Battle of Somme was ,fought. in:

(a)1914 . (b) 1915 (c) 1916

(5) Foch was a:

(a) French Commander (b) German Minister (c) Russian Politician

(6) The Treaty of Trianon was signed in:

(a) 1919 (b) 1920 (c) 1921

(7) Clemenceau became the Prime Minister of France in:

(a) 1917 (b) 1918 (c) 1919

(8) Pichon was a:

(a} British Commander (b) Italian War Minister (c) French Foreign Minister

(9) Great Game, now forever discredited". These words were spoken at Paris Conference by:

(a) Clemenceau (b) Wilson (c) Orlando

(10) The Weimar Republic fell in:

(a) 1931 (b) 1933 (c) 1935

(11) The ship ‘Athenia’ sunk by German Torpedo. in. 1939 belonged to:

(a) France (b) Italy (c) Britain

(12) Blitzkrieg was :

(a) AnItalian War Operation (b) French war tactics (c) German War technique

(13) The Bold Proposal that Britain and France should become ~.one country was put-forward in 1940 by:

(a) Churchill (b) Petain (c) Paul Reynaud

(14) The judicial Organ of the League of Nations was called:

(a) International Court of Justice (b) United International Court of Justice (c) Permanent International Court of Justice

(15) Graf Spree was a small battle-ship used by:

(a) Italy (b) Japan (c) Germany

(16) The author of the book "Europe in the Twentieth Century" is:

(a) D. Thompson (b) Agatha Ramm (c)Stuart. T. Miller

(17) "Russian Peoples.’ worst misfortune was his (Lenin’s) birth; their next worse- his death" This was stated by:

(a) De Gaulle: (b) Churchill (c) Wilson

(18) Japan attacked the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii On:

(a) 7th December 1941 (b) 17th December 1941 (c) 27th December 194I

(19) Yalta Conference took place in:

(a) January 1945 (c) March 1945 (b) February 1945

(20) Greece joined NATO in: -

(a) 1951 (b) 1952 (c) 1953

Paper-1, (2001)

COMPULSORY QUESTION
8. Write only the correct answer in the Answer Book. Do not reproduce the questions.

(A) Identify the following in short statements:

(i) Napoleonic Codes

Under Napoleon's direction, scholars completed the revision and organisation of the laws begun by the National Convention.
The period of Consulate (1799-1804) also saw the elaboration and completion of the Napoleonic Codes.
There were five codes in all: the civil code,the code of civil procedure,the code of criminal procedure
and the penal law,the penal code, and the commercial code.


(ii) TODLEBEN

(1818–84) Todleben was a Russian engineer, to whose skill was attributed the success of the defence of Sebastopol in the Crimean War.

(iii) DANTON

Georges Jacques Danton( 26 October 1759 – 5 April 1794) was a leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution and the first President of the Committee of Public Safety.

(iv) Verdune

Verdun(France) was the site of a major battle of the First World War. One of the costliest battles
of the war, Verdun exemplified the policy of a 'war of attrition' pursued by both sides,
which led to an enormous loss of life.


(v) ZOLLVERIEN

The Zollverein, or German Customs Union, was a coalition of German states formed to manage
customs and economic policies within their territories. Established in 1818, the original
union cemented economic ties between the various Prussian and Hohenzollern territories,
and ensured economic contact between the non-contiguous holdings of the Hohenzollern family,
which was also the ruling family of Prussia.


(iv) KULTURKAMPG

The struggle (1871-1883) between the Roman Catholic Church and the German government under Bismarck for control over school and ecclesiastical appointments and civil marriage.



(B) Fill in the blanks:
(i) Napoleon was born in 1769 at Corsica.

(ii) Alexander II of Russia was killed in March 1881.

(iii) Bismarck signed the treaty of DREIKAISERBUND with Russia on 18 June, 1881.

(iv) Fashoda incident took place in 1898.

(C) Who made the following statements:
(i) We must remain in these lands and then come forth great like ancient.

Napoleon

(ii) I have called the New World to redress the balance of the old.

Canning

(iii) I advise other countries to discontinue their menaces. We fear god and nothing else in the world.

Bismark

(iv) Every nation for itself and god for us all.

George Canning,


(D) Who wrote the following books:
(i) A history of modern world.
(ii) Europe since 1815.

(iii) Europe in the Nineteenth Century.

Agatha Ramm

(iv) International relations between the two world wars.

E. H. Carr

Paper-2,( 2001)


COMPULSORY QUESTION

8. Write only the correct answer in the Answer Book. Do not reproduce the questions.


(1) Wilson’s Fourteen Points were announced in:
(a) 1917
(b) 1918
(c) 1919
(d) None of these

(2) The treaty of Neuilly was made by the victorious powers with:
(a) Austria
(b) Hungary
(c) Bulgaria
(d) None of these

(3) Locarno Pact was signed in:
(a) 1925
(b) 1927
(c) 1930
(d) None of these

(4) The other name of the Kellogg Pact was:
(a) Pact of Berlin
(b) Pact of Paris
(c) Pact of Vienna
(d) None of these

(5) The Headquarters of the League of Nations stationed at:
(a) Paris
(b) Geneva
(c) Hague
(d) None of these

(6) “The Cadets” emerged as a strong political group in:
(a) Russia
(b) Germany
(c) Italy
(d) None of these

(7) On death, Lenin was replaced by:
(a) Trotsky
(b) Kerensky
(c) Stalin
(d) None of these

(8) Albania was annexed by Italy in:
(a) 1930
(b) 1935
(c) 1939
(d) None of these

(9) About whom Mussolini once boasted “mare Nostrum”:
(a) The Mediterranean Sea
(b) The Italian Army
(c) The Fascist Party
(d) None of these

(10) Germany annexed Austria in:
(a) 1932
(b) 1934
(c) 1937
(d) None of these

(11) The formation of the Berlin – Rome – Tokyo Axis was called “a great political triangle”. By whom?
(a) Hitler
(b) Mussolini
(c) Someone else

(12) The French Foreign Policy between the two World Wars mainly circled round the:
(a) German phobia
(b) Russian fear
(c) Italian danger
(d) None of these

(13) In 1940, the battle of Oran was fought between:
(a) England and France
(b) England and Italy
(c) England and Germany
(d) None of these

(14) The hero of the battle of El Alamein was:
(a) Gen. Eisenhower
(b) Gen. Montgomery
(c) Gen. Alexander
(d) None of these

(15) The author(s) of the Book “Europe Since Napoleon” is/are:
(a) E. H. Carr
(b) A. J. P. Taylor
(c) D. Thompson
(d) Derry and Jarman
(e) None of these

(16) The aircraft carrier “Courageous” sunk by the Germans, belonged to:
(a) France
(b) England
(c) Russia
(d) None of these

(17) The Atlantic Charter was issued on:
(a) August: 14, 1940
(b) August: 14, 1941
(c) August: 14, 1942
(d) None of these

(18) The Headquarters of the UNO are placed at:
(a) Hague
(b) Washington
(c) New York
(d) None of these

(19) The Marshall Plan was adopted in:
(a) 1645
(b) 1946
(c) 1947
(d) None of these

(20) Burma got independence from England in:
(a) September 1947
(b) January 1948
(c) March 1948
(d) None of these