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GHULYAM (Slaves)or also known as Mumluk Dynasty
• Qutb ud-Din Aibeg ibn Mu'izz............................1206 - 1210
• Qutb-ud-din was a slave and was purchased by General Muhammad Ghori governor of Ghazni in the past. Inspired by the Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan and wishing to surpass it, Qutb ud-din Aibeg, commenced construction of the Qutb Minar in Delhi in 1193, but could only complete its base. His successor, Iltutmish, added three more stories and, in 1386, Firuz Shah Tughluq constructed the fifth and the last story. Qutb-ud-din Aibeg's tomb is located behind Anarkali Bazaar, Lahore.
• Aram Shah S/o Qutb ud-Din...............................1210 - 1211
• According to some, he was Aibak's son, but Minhaj-us-Siraj distinctly writes that Qutub-ud-din only had three daughters. Abul Fazl has made the "astonishing statement" that he was the Sultan's brother. A modern writer has hazarded the opinion that "he was no relation of Qutub-ud-din" but was selected as his successor as he was available on the spot. In fact, there were no fixed rules governing the succession to the Crown in the Turkish State.
• Shams ud-Din Iltutmish al-Qutbi ibn Yalam Khan..........1211 - 29 Apr 1236
• He was the slave of Qutb ud-Din Aibeg and later married to one of his daughter. He was Governor of Badaun and was called by administrative and military elite to defeated Aram in the plain of Jud near Delhi in 1211. Coins were struck first time by this dynasty in the name of Iltutmish in gold, silver, billion and copper. In Bengal, the issues were mostly in silver, with a few special gold coins. On his various coins, Iltutmish's name is spelt in four different ways. His usual titles on the Tankas struck outside Bengal are: al-sultan al-azam sham al-dunya wa'l din abu'l muzaffar Iltutmish al-sultan. Caliph al-Mustansir are also cited on some coins.
• Rukn ud-Din Firuz Shah S/o Shams ud-Din Iltutmish...May 1236 - 20 Nov 1236
• Rukn ud-din's reign was short. With Iltutmish's widow Shah Turkaan for all practical purposes running the government, Rukn ud-din abandoned himself to the pursuit of personal pleasure and debauchery, to the considerable outrage of the citizenry. On November 09, 1236, Shah Turkaan was killed and later on 20 Nov Rukn ud-Din was also assassinated. No gold coins of this ruler are as yet known. The silver Tankas from Delhi are rare while Lakhnauti silver Tankas are very rare. Billion jitals were struck in Delhi and Budaun. No copper coins are known for this ruler. The ruler's title on most of the silver Tankas is: al-sultan al-azam rukn al-dunya wa'l din abu'l muzaffar firuz shah bin sultan.
• Jalalat al-Din Radiyya (fem) D/o Shams ud-Din Iltutmish.1236 - 15 Oct 1240
• Only one gold coin of Radiyya has so far been published in Bengal style. Her title on Delhi silver Tankas is radiyyat al-Din which are considered rare while the Lakhnauti silver Tankas with title: jalalat al-din are extremely rare. Caliph al-Mustansir are also cited on her coins. Billion jitals continued to be struck in both Delhi and Budaun, but later bull and horseman type were discontinued.
• Mu'izz ad-Din Bahram Shah S/o Shams ud-Din Iltutmish....1240 - 15 May 1242
• Tankas are known for this ruler in gold from Delhi as extremely rare and in silver from Delhi and Lakhnauti as rare to very rare. Caliph al-Mustansir are also cited on his coins. Billion jitals continued to be struck in both Delhi and Budaun. The bull and horseman type was struck again at Delhi and other Delhi types are notable for having the ruler's name above the horseman. The ruler's title on most of the Tankas is: al-sultan al-azam mu'izz al-dunya wa'l din abu'l muzaffar bahram shah bin al-sultan.
• Ala ud-Din Masud Shah S/o Rukn ud-Din Firuz.............1242 - 11 Jun 1246
• Gold Tankas are rare for this ruler from Lakhnauti in Bengal and Delhi. Caliph al-Mustansir are also cited on his early coins and later Caliph Mustasim from AH 641 (1243). Billion jitals continued to be struck in both Delhi and Budaun as well as at another mint in northern India, possibly Uch. Some of the bull and horseman type coins have date in Samvat era. No copper coins are known. The ruler's title on most of the Tankas is: al-sultan al-azam ala al-dunya wa'l din abu'l muzaffar masud shah ibn al-sultan. He was deposed.
• Nasir ud-Din Mahmud S/o Shams ud-Din Iltutmish..........1246 - 19 Feb 1266
• As a ruler, he was known to be very religious, spending most of his time in prayer and renown for aiding the poor and the distressed. However, it was actually his Deputy Sultan or Naib, Ghiyas ud din Balban, who primarily dealt with the state affairs. After Mahmud's death in 1266, Balban rose to power as Mahmud had no male heir. Coins were struck in his name in gold, silver, billion and copper in same mints as above. In Bengal, Tankas were struck in the name of caliph al-Mustansir (at Delhi and Lakhnauti) and later caliph Mustasim (at Delhi only). A single half Tanka in silver is known as well as several one-tweth Tankas (mashas). In billion bull and horseman type coins was discontinued. Copper coins are very scarce. consisting mainly of small adlis. Some heavier copper coins are known but is not certain whether they are to be attributed to this ruler or to Nasir al-Din Mahmud Damghan of Madura. The ruler's title on most of the Tankas is: al-sultan al-azam nasir al-dunya wa'l din abu'l muzaffar mahmud shah bin (or ibn) al-sultan.
• Ghiyath ud-Din Mahmud (Balban) Ulugh Khan...............1266 - 1286
• He was son of a Turkish noble of the Ilbari tribe, but as a child was captured by Mongols and sold as a slave at Ghazni. Khwaja, Jamaluddin Basri of Baghdad. Later, he was bought by Sultan Iltutmish in 1232 CE, who at the orders of his own master, Qutbuddin Aibak, released him from slavery and brought him up in a manner befitting a prince. He was liberally educated. He introduced the Persian culture of zaminbos that is lying flat on one's face before the emperor. He was first appointed as Khasdar (king's personal attendant) by the Sultan. He became the head of the 'Chalissa', a group of forty Turkish nobles of the state. After the overthrow of Razia Sultana he made rapid strides in the subsequent reigns. He was initially the Prime Minister of Sultan Nasir ud din Mahmud from 1246 to 1266 and married his sister, but Balban declared himself the Sultan of Delhi after the previous sultan Nasir ud din Mahmud's death because Sultan Nasir ud din Mahmud had no male heir. Sultan Balban ascended the throne in 1266 at the age of sixty with the title of Ghyas ud din Balban. During his reign, Balban ruled with an iron fist. He broke up the 'Chihalgani', a group of the forty most important nobles in the court. He tried to establish peace and order in the country of India. He built many outposts in areas where there was crime and garrisoned them with soldiers. Balban wanted to make sure everyone was loyal to the crown by establishing an efficient espionage system. Sultan Balban had a strong and well-organized spy system. Balban struck coins in gold, silver, billion and copper. The gold and silver tankas are usually well struck. The silver Tankas were also struck in Alwar, Sultanur and at a hitherto unidentified mint that has provisionally been read as Nimur. A few silver one-twelfth tankas are known. Balban was the last Sultan to use the horseman design on billion issue. Such coins are very rare and were soon replaced by a new, bilingual type, containing around 0.3 grams of silver. These coins may have been intended as 2 jitals (dugani) pieces, going 24 to the silver Tanka. In copper, he revived the 40-rati piece (paika) 4.6g with its rare half 2.3g. He also issued a large number of small adlis ranging in weight from 0.65 to around 2.3 grams. The ruler's title on most of the Tankas is: al-sultan al-azam ghiyath al-dunya wa'l din abu'l muzaffar balban shah al-sultan.
• Mu'izz ud-Din Kai-Kubad S/o Bugra Khan..................1286 - 14 Oct 1290
• During Balban's reign, it was difficult for Balban to find an heir to the throne. His first choice, his son Muhammad (Khan Shahid), died before he could succeed Balban, his tomb stands close to Balban's tomb. Nasir ud-Din Mahmud Bughra Khan (Balban's second son married to the daughter of Nasir ud-Din Mahmud), refused the throne as he was already the governor of Bengal. Eventually, Balban chose his grandson, Kay Khusroe, to be his successor. However, when Balban died, the chiefs chose for Mu'izz ud-Din Kai-Kubad to become ruler instead. Throughout his reign, Mu'izz ud-Din Kai-Kubad (being still young at the time) ignored all state affairs. After four years, he suffered from a paralytic stroke and was later on murdered in 1290 by a Khilji chief. His three year old son, Kaiumarth (Kayumars), succeeded him. During Kai-Kubad's reign, gold and silver Tankas of usual type were struck in Delhi. In addition, there are some extremely rare one-third, one-sixth and one-twelfth Tankas. In billion, the only issue was a 3-gani bilingual coin. Copper paikas and adlis were also struck. The ruler's title on most of the Tankas is:al-sultan al-azam mu'izz al-dunya wa'l din abu'l muzaffar kaiqubad al-sultan.
• Shams ad-Din Kaiumarth S/o Mu'izz ud-Din Kai-Kubad.............1290
• Kaiumarth' guardian, Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji, eventually dethrone Kaiumarth and declared himself king, thus bringing an end to the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi. The coins of this ephemeral pretender are very rare. Several silver Tankas of the standard type are known and a few copper coin. No gold or billion coins yet came to light. The ruler's title on most of the Tankas is: al-sultan al-azam shams al-dunya wa'l din abu'l muzaffar kayumarth.
• KHALJI (Gharzai Dynasty)
• Jalal ud-Din Firuz Shah Khalji S/o Qaim Shah....13 Jul 1290 - 21 Jul 1296
• He built his capital at Kilughari, a few miles from the city of Delhi. Ala-ud-din was also responsible for a successful raid in to Deccan as Governor of Kara under his uncle. While Ala ud-Din was returning from there with the spoils of victory, Jalal-ud-Din Firuz hurried to Kara to meet him. Eventually Jalal-ud-Din Firuz was murdered by his nephew, Ala ud-Din. Gold and silver Tankas of standard type continued to be struck at Delhi during the reign of this ruler, and they continued to quote the caliph al-Mustasim. A few one-twelfth tankas in silver are also known. In billion, a bilingual jital was struck. A few light-weight specimens of this type are known, but they may well be contemporary forgeries. Copper paikas were struck at usual weight, and NW lists a coin at round half that weight that may have been intended as a half paika. Copper adlis were also struck. Ruler's title on most of the Tankas is: al-sultan al-azam jalal al-dunya wa'l din abu'l muzaffar firuz shah al-sultan.
• Rukn ud-Din Ibrahim Shah S/o Jalal ud-Din Firuz....Jul 1296 - Nov 1296
• Malika Jahan, the widow of Jalal-ud-Din Firuz, put her younger son Rukn ud-Din Khilji on the throne. Ala ud-Din quickly marched on Delhi from Kara. He entered Delhi with his uncle's head on a pike and proclaimed himself the King of Delhi. The short reign of Ibrahim produced coins in all four metal. He was deposed. His coins are all scarce to extremely rare. Only one gold Tanka has so far been published. The Tankas are notable fir including the name of the ruler's father, Firuz, on the reverse, with a short religious formula but no caliph. A single billion type of 32 rati is known, which may have been intended as a jital. In copper there are paikas of 40 rati and adlis. The metrology is thus as for preceding reigns. Ruler's title: al-sultan al-azam rukn al-dunya wa'l din abu'l muzaffar ibrahim shah al-sultan bin al-sultan al-azam jalal al-dunya wa'l din abu'l firuz shah nasir amir al-muminin.
• Ala ud-Din Muhammad Shah I S/o Masud............03 Oct 1296 - 03 Jan 1316
• Ala ud-Din Sikandar Sani Muhammad Shah is also noted in history for being one of the few rulers to repeatedly defeat the warring Mongols and thereby saving India from plundering raids and attacks. He was the nephew and son in law of Jalal-ud-Din Firuz Shah. His father Masud was the brother of Firuz Shah. The last Mongol invasion took place in 1307-1308 under Iqbalmand. He had just about managed to cross the Indus when Ala ud-Din Khilji’s armies overtook them and put them all to the sword. But he did not stop there, Ala-ud-Din Khilji had to be sure that the Mongols would never come back. The only way to do that was to attack them, he sent plundering armies under the veteran general Ghazi Malik to Kandahar, Ghazni and Kabul. The Mongols were already so much in awe of him that they did not even bother to defend their own territories against him. These offensives effectively crippled the Mongol line of control leading to India until the arrival of Timur Lane. About the close of his reign Ala ud-Din Khilji had prepared an expedition of 10,000 men under Ghazi Malik (later Ghiyath ud-Din Tughluq) to go to Debalpur to fight with the Chagatai Khanate Mongols. Ghazi Malik was thus enabled to go and secure Multan, Uch and Sindh for himself, especially as Ala ud-Dín’s sons proved incapable and caused confusion in the affairs of the kingdom. The coinage of Muhammad Khalji is the most copious of the whole Delhi series. His campaigns into the Deccan enabled him to bring back vast quantities of booty. Gold and silver Tankas were struck in large numbers from three named mints: Delhi, Dar al-Islam (possibly the old Delhi college had the mint set up or Ranthambhor, which was captured in AH 700 and apparently called by this name) and Deogir (started in AH 714 and later renamed as Daulatbad). There are also some square Tankas in both metals which do not show a mint-name but might be struck somewhere in the south. Ala ud-Din Muhammad moved his capital to new Delhi at Siri, a few miles north of the old city. Some new legend appears on the reverse of his coin with Ala ud-Din Muhammad calling himself sikandar al-thani (Alexander the second), yamin al-khilafa (the right hand of the Caliphate) andnasir amir al-muminin (helper of the Commander of the Faithful). Ruler's title on most of the Tankas is: al-sultan al-azam ala al-dunya wa'l din abu'l muzaffar muhammad shah al-sultan.
• Shihab ud-Din Umar S/o Ala ud-Din...................Jan 1316 - Apr 1316
• The coin of this ephemeral ruler are rare to extremely rare. Tankas in gold and silver are known with the ruler's titles on the obverse and the sikandar al-thani legend on the reverse, somewhat inappropriate for a child of five or six! After Alauddin died, his army commander Malik Kafur, attempted to install Shihab al-Din Umar, as sultan with himself as the child's step-father and regent. However, Alauddin's third son, Mubarak Khan, managed to have Malik Khafur murdered, deposed Umar and installed himself as Sultan Qutb al-Din Mubarak. In billion only the 6-gani type is known, dated both AH 715 and 716. No copper coins are known for this ruler. Ruler's title: al-sultan al-azam shihab al-dunya wa'l din abu'l muzaffar umar shah al-sultan.
• Qutb ud-Din Mubarak Shah I S/o Ala ud-Din...........Apr 1316 - Jun 1320
• Qutb ud-Din, at the age of 18, was originally appointed regent to his younger six-year old brother, Shihab ud-Din Umar. Within two months, Qutb ud-Din blinded his brother and ascended the throne. Qutb ud-Din was murdered by Khusrau Khan in 1320, this effectively ended the Khilji dynasty. Khusrau Khan was a Hindu slave of the Makwana sect in Gujarat who resented his forcible conversion to Islam. The coins of Mubarak were struck in all four metals and is noted for its variety and for the titles he gave himself. According to his mint-master, Pheru, he created 44 different denominations, comprising more than 70 types during his four year reign. The largest of these is said to have been a gold 200 tola piece and the smallest a copper coin weighting less than a gram. Many of these types are not known to have survived. For the first couple of years of the reign the coinage was round but from AH 718, it was struck on square planchets. Ruler's title: al-sultan al-azam qutb al-dunya wa'l din abu'l muzaffar mubarak shah al-sultan bin al-sultan (sikandar al-zaman yamin al-khilafat nasir amir al-muminin as sultan ledend or al-wathiq billah amir al-muminin as imam legend). Mubarak, however, was not an able ruler. He reigned for four short years, the sultanate was left in disarray, and a few short-lived sultans later, it was ripe for takeover by Ghazi Malik Tughluq.
• Shams al-Din Mahmud (pretender)................................1318
• Only a few coins of this ephemeral pretender are known. They comprise a single gold Tanka and some billion coins. While it is though that Mahmud was proclaimed king in Delhi when Mubarak was in Deccan. The histories also state that the plot was to assassinate Mubarak in Deccan. The leader of the conspiracy was Asad al-Din (Adad al-Din?) an uncle of Muhammad Khalji. It is uncertain whether Asad al-Din intended to seize the throne himself or put someone else on the throne with the name of Shams al-Din Mahmud. From the ruler's title: al-sultan al-azam shams al-dunya wa'l din abu'l muzaffar mahmud shah al-sultan sikandar al-zaman adad al-khilafa nasir amir al-muminin, it clearly indicates that Asad (Adad ?) may have intended himself as the next ruler.
• Nasir ud-Din Khusrau Khan Barwari (usurper).........Jun 1320 - Oct 1320
• He began to bestow undue favors on mischievous people and wasted public money. The Hindus began to join him in large number. Seeing this state of things, Ghazi Malik’s son Fakhr Malik left Multan secretly and joined his father, informing him of what was happening at Delhi. Then, father and son, being both brave soldiers, collected the forces from Sindh and Multan and hastened to Delhi to help the Muslims against the Hindus. Arriving near Delhi with 3,000 veteran soldiers, they engaged in battle with the army of Khusrau Khan, and defeated them. Then making their way into Delhi they again defeated Khusrau Khan in battle and he fled away. Gold and silver Tankas are known for this ruler from Delhi and Deogir, with silver being rarer than gold. Three types of billion coins are also known as 12, 6 and 2 gani values. Copper coins are very scarce and come in at least two weights. The ruler's title: al-sultan al-azam nasir al-dunya wa'l din khusru shah al-sultan al-wathiq bi-nasir al-rahman wali amir al-muminin (he who trusts in the assistance of the Merciful, trustee of the Commander of the Faithful).
• TUGHLUQID
• Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq Shah I [Ghazi Malik].....08 Sep 1320 - Feb 1325
• Towards the end of his reign Alauddin Khilji had prepared an expedition of 10,000 men under Ghazi Malik to go to Debalpur to fight against the Chagatai Khanate Mongols. Ghazi Malik was thus enabled to go and secure Multan, Uch and Sindh for himself, especially as Alauddín Khilji’s sons proved incapable and caused confusion in the affairs of the kingdom, which ultimately took away the kingdom from the possession of the house of Khiljí. Alauddin Khilji’s son Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah, allegedly, a mad man, was removed from the throne of Delhi by Khusrau Khan. In 1320, the nobles, the troops, the learned men, the Syeds and other subjects united in selecting Ghazi Malik for the vacant post as Tughluq Shah, ruler of Delhi. Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq proceeded from Multan to Delhi, the tribe of Soomro revolted and took possession of Thatta. Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq appointed Tajuddin Malik as governor of Multan and Khwájah Khatír as governor of Bhakkar and he left 'Malik Ali Sher in charge of Sehwan. In 1323 he appointed his son Muhammad Shah his heir and successor and took a written promise or agreement to the arrangement from the ministers and nobles of the state. In AH 720 he died of heat apoplexy.
• He was the Turkic slave of Balban. Tughluq Shah has produced coins in gold, silver, billion and copper.
• Muhammad Shah II [Fakhr al-Din Malik] S/o Tughluq......1325 - 20 Mar 1351
• He is also known as Prince Fakhr Malik, Jauna Khan and Ulugh Khan. Muhammad Tughlug was a scholar versed in logic, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and physical sciences. He had knowledge of medicine and was skillful in dialectics. He was also a calligrapher. Muhammad bin Tughluq is known for his active interest in experimenting with coinage. He memorialized himself and his activities through his coinage and produced more gold coins than had his predecessors. The coins boasted fine calligraphy. He issued a number of fractional denominations. The large influx of gold from his plundering of south Indian campaign led him to increase coinage weights. He enlarged the gold dinar from 172 grains to 202 grains. He introduced a silver coin, the adlis, which was discontinued after seven years due to lack of popularity and acceptance among his subjects. All his coins reflect a staunch religiosity, with such inscriptions as "The warrior in the cause of God", "The trustier in support of the four Khalifs - Abubakkar, Umar, Usman and Ali". The kalimah appeared in most of his coinage. Both at Delhi and at Daulatabad coins were minted in memory of his late father and also on Abbasid caliphs al-Mustakfi I and al-Hakim II. There were also mints at Lakhnauti, Salgaun, Darul-I-Islam, Sultanpur (Warrangal), Tughlaqpur (Tirhut), and Mulk-I-Tilang. More than thirty varieties of billion coins are known so far, and the types show his numismatic interests. Tughluq had two scalable versions, issued in Delhi and Daulatabad. The currency obeyed two different standards, probably to satisfy the local standard which preexisted in the North and in the South respectively. Tughluq's skill in forcing the two standards of currency is remarkable. He engraved "He who obeys the Sultan obeys the compassionate" to fascinate people in accepting the new coinage. Inscriptions were even engraved in the Nagari legend, but owing to the alloy used, the coinage underwent deterioration. As well, the copper and brass coins could easily be forged, turning every house into a mint. Tughluq subsequently withdrew the forged currency by exchanging it with bulls and gold. He issued complex and innovative coins of the whole Delhi series. His coins were struck at various number of mints, reflecting the extent of his conquests.
• Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud ibn Muhammad...........................a few days in Mar. 1351
• On the death of Muhammad bin Tughluq, Firuz Tughluq was accepted as the next ruler by the army in Sind. In Delhi, Khawaja-i-Jahan, unware of this, raised to the throne, a would-be son of the late king, with the name Mahmud. When Firuz returned to Delhi, Mahmud was set aside. During this brief period, coins were struck in Mahmud's name in gold, silver and billion. The gold Tankas turn up surprisingly often but other coins are extremely rare. Ruler's title:yamin amir al-muminin ghiyath al-dunya wa'l din abu'l muzaffar mahmud shah bin muhamad shah bin tughluq shah al-sultan.
• Firuz Shah S/o Rajab Sipah Salar.....................1351 - 20 Sep 1388
• His father's name was Razzab (the younger brother of Ghazi Malik). Firuz Shah Tughlaq succeeded his cousin Muhammad bin Tughluq following the later's death from a fatal illness, but due to widespread unrest Firuz's realm was much smaller than Muhammed's. Firuz Shah Tughlaq was forced by rebellions to concede virtual independence to Bengal and other provinces. He was known as an iconoclast. In the 1350s, he established the city of Firozabad at the site of the Feroz Shah Kotla (Literally fortress or citadel of Firoz Shah). Most of the city was destroyed as subsequent rulers dismantled its buildings and reused the spolia as building materials. Firuz's billion and copper coins were so popular that they continued to be struck long after his death with posthumous date especially from Delhi (Hadrat and Dar al-Mulk). There is also a rare billion issue with the mint name Sahat-i-Sind as Firuz made two expeditions to Sind.
• Fath Khan S/o Firuz Shah (at Jaunpur)........................1360
• In AH760, Fath Khan was invested with the insignia of royalty by his father Firuz Shah and allowed to strike coins in his own name. His domain was the eastern province of the sultanate, the iqlim al-sharq, which later became the independent sultanate of Jaunpur.
• Muhammad Shah S/o Firuz Shah (regent).................1387 - 1388
• Because of his increasing infirmity, Firuz made his son, Muhammad as regent in AH 789 and evidently allowed him to issue coins bearing both names. When Firuz died in the following year, the succession went to Tughluq Shah, the son of his eldest son Fath Khan. Muhammad bin Firuz retired to Nagarkot. Billion and copper coins were issued in joint names as Firuz shah and Muhammad Shah during 1387-1388..
• Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq Shah II S/o Fath Khan..........1388 - 14 Mar 1389
• He succeeded Firuz Shah Tughluq, immediately after his death. However, Ghiyas ud-Din Tughluq II was not a capable ruler, and failed to successfully manage and control his empire. He was eventually murdered on March 14, 1389 and succeeded by Abu Baker. Even so, none of the successors were strong leaders, and the Tughlaq Dynasty eventually came to its end in 1398. Despite his short reign, the coinage of Tughluq II is quite diverse. None of his coins are common. A few gold coins are known, the remainder being billion and copper.
• Firuz Shah Zafar Khan S/o Firuz Shah.........................1389
• Ruled in AH 791. As with the pervious ruler coinage, it consists of rare gold issue, various billion issues (mostly rare) and copper coins.
• Abu Bakr Shah S/o Firuz Shah Zafar Khan...............1389 - 31 Aug 1390
• However, Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III S/o Firuz Shah, also desired to be ruler as he had been serving as regent in 1387-1388. He struggled against Abu Baker over the control of the throne. Eventually Abu Baker was defeated, and Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III succeeded him as king. Gold, billion and copper coins are known on his name. During his reign coins in the name of Abu Bakar were also issued in AH 792 (1389).
• Nasir ud-Din Muhammad Shah III S/o Firuz Shah..31 Aug 1390 - 20 Jan 1394
• Gold, billion and copper coins are known under his reign as sole ruler. He also issued coins as regent for his father from 1387 to 1388 as well.
• Ala al-Din Sikandar Shah I S/o Muhammad III....22 Jan 1394 - 08 Mar 1394
• He was known as Humayun Khan and took the name Ala al-Din Sikandar Shah after becoming in power. Only billion and copper coins are known for this ephemeral ruler.
• Nasir al-Din Mahmud Shah II S/o Muhammad III...08 Mar 1394 - Feb 1413 with...
• The reign of Mahmud bin Muhammad was a very stormy one. In the year AH 797, a rival sultan was established in the form of Nusrat Shah. In AH 801 Delhi was sacked by Timur. Between AH 804 and 808, the effective ruler was Mulla Iqbal Khan. Mahmud struck coins in gold, silver, billion and copper. Billion coins on his name are reported from AH 797 (1394). During the reign there was also various posthumous issues of coins in the name of Firuz Tughluq, Muhammad bin Firuz and Mahmud bin Muhammad. He controlled the eastern part of the sultanate from Delhi.
• Nusrat Shah S/o Fath Khan.........................Jan 1395 - 1399
• Grandson of Firuz Shah Tughluq, controlled the west part from Firozabad. Nusrat was a son of Fath Khan and was put forward as claimant to the throne for a period during the reign of Muhmud Shah II. This was the lowest point of the Delhi sultanate, as the two rivals watched each other from different parts of the city. Nusrat's coinage is mostly in copper with double, single and half falus. There are some gold and silver Tankas known. Ruler's title: al-wathiq bi-ta'yid al-rahmani nusrat shah al-sultan khulidat mamlakatuhu (confiding in divine support, Nusrat Shah the sultan, may his kingdom endure).
• Sack of Delhi by Timur; interregnum...................1399 - 1414
• Mulla Iqbal Khan......................................1399 - 1414
• When Timur invaded India and sacked Delhi, Mahmud Shah II made a good escape and returning until the year AH 804. During his absence and indeed after his return, the shrunken sultanate was effectively governed by Mulla Iqbal Khan. Only a single gold Tanka dated AH 802 is known on his name. Ruler's title: al-sultan al-azam abu'l mansur iqbal shah al-sultan.
• LODI
• Daulat Khan............................................14 13 - 28 May 1414
• No coins are known on his name but there are posthumous coin dated AH 816 (1414) silver Tanka and copper falus on Mahmud bin Muhammad and bllion Tanka on Firuz Tughluq.
• SAYYID
• Sayyid Khizr Khan...............................28 May 1414 - 20 May 1421
• He founded the Sayyid dynasty. But he did not take up the title of king and nominally, continued to be a Rayat-i-Ala (vassal) of the Timurids, initially of Timur and after his death, his successor Shah Rukh, grandson of Timur. No coins are known on Khidr Khan's name but posthumous dated AH 817 to AH823 coins exists. Silver Tankas on Muhammad Firuz, billion and copper coins on Firuz Tughluq.
• Mu'izz ud-Din Mubarak Shah II S/o Khidr Khan....20 May 1421 - 20 Jan 1434
• After Mubarak Khan was killed, his nephew Muhammad Khan ascended the throne and styled himself as Sultan Muhammad Shah. During the first seven years of his reign, Mubarak did not issue any coins in his name, preferring to continue with the posthumous types of Firuz Tughluq and Muhammad bin Firuz. It is interesting to note that both the posthumous gold and silver Tankas of Muhammad bin Firuz use the title abu'l mahamid (father of laudable qualities), a title not used on his coins issued while he was still alive. Mubarak's own gold and silver Tankas are very rare. He issued no billion coins. In copper, he replaced the 40 rati falus with one of 48 rati, together with its double and half. Title on his coins: fi 'ahd al-sultan al-ghazi al-mutawakkil ala'l rahman mubarak shah sultan. The reverse of the gold Tanka has a quotation from the Qur'an: Verily we have won for thee a manifest victory (18.1).
• Muhammed Shah IV S/o Farid S/o Khizr Khan.............1434 - 1445
• Coins were struck on his name in gold, silver, billon and copper. The standard weight for all four metals were increased slightly during his reign. At the same time there also exist falus and double falus at the old 40 rati standard, possibly for use in a particular part of the empire where the new standard was not in force. One type of falus in the name of Mubarak Shah Sayyid dated AH 838 (1435) in the beginning of Muhammad's reign is known. Title on his coins: al-sultan al-azam abu'l muhamid muhammad shah bin farid shah hadrat shah al-sultan. Just before his death, he called his son Ala-ud-Din from Badaun and nominated him as his successor.
• Ala ud-Din Alam Shah S/o Muhammad Shah.................1445 - 19 Apr 1451
• He moved his capital from Delhi to Budaun. No gold Tankas are known on his name. A single silver Tanka, 80 and 32 rati billion coins and in copper double and single falus on 40 rati standard are known. Title on his coins: sultan ala' al-dunya wa'l din alamshah bin muhammad shah bin farid shah. Posthumous copper coins on Mubarak Shah Sayyid were struck at Dar al-Mulk Delhi dated AH 854-855 (1450-1451). At this time Alam Shah was in Budaun and had little, if any, authority in Delhi, which was under the control of two bobles, Hisham Khan and Hamid Khan. These two in due course offered the throne of Delhi to Bahlul Khan, who readily accepted and seated upon the throne. These posthumous Mubarak Shah coins were therefore probably struck in the months prior to Bahlul's accession. In some account it is noted that Ala ud-Din Alam Shah voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi sultanate in favour of Bahlul Khan Lodi on April 19, 1451 and continued to live in Badaun till his death in 1478.
• LODI (restored)
• Bahlul Shah Lodi................................19 Apr 1451 - Jul 1489
• He was the nephew and son-in-law of Islam Khan (Malik Sultan Shah Lodi), the governor of Sirhind (Punjab) in India and succeeded him as the governor of Sirhind during the reign of Sayyid dynasty ruler Muhammad Shah (Muhammad-bin-Farid). Muhammad Shah raised him to the status of an Amir. In 1479, Sultan Bahlul Khan Lodi defeated and annexed Sharqi dynasty based at Jaunpur. Bahlul Khan did much to stop rebellions and uprisings in his territories, and extended his holdings over Gwalior, Jaunpur and upper Uttar Pradesh. In 1486, he appointed his son, Babrak Shah as viceroy of Jaunpur. In time, this proved to be problematic, as his second son, Nizam Khan (Sikandar Lodi) was named successor, and a power struggle ensued upon his death in 1489. Only billion and copper coins were produced in his reign. An analysis of some billion tankas revealed a silver content of a round 16% and were known as bahlulis. Title on his billion coins: al-mutawakkil 'ala'l rahman bahlul shah sultan. He is also know to produce a copper coin in Jaunpur dated AH 888-894. Bahlul Shah captured Jaunpur and appointed his son Barbak Shah as governor of Jaunpur. Barbak Shah produced Double falus and single falus coins dated AH 894-896 (1489-1491).
• Nizam Khan Sikandar S/o Bahlul..................17 Jul 1489 - 21 Nov 1517
• The second son of Bahlul, succeeded him after his death on July 17, 1489. He was nominated by his father to succeed him and was crowned as king on July 15, 1489. He refounded Agra in 1504 and constructed mosques. He abolished corn duties and patronized trade and commerce. He was a poet of repute. He composed under the pen-name of Gulruk. He was also patron of learning and ordered Sanskrit work in medicine to be translated into Persian. Sikandar Lodi tried to conquer the Gwalior Fort, and he attacked 5 times, but was failed all the five times by the king of Gwalior Maharaja Mansingh. He developed Agra as his second capital (after Delhi), as it took a lot of time to travel from Delhi to Gwalior. Finally he attacked a small region, near Gwalior named Narwar, and he had to wait 11 months at the gates of the Narwar fort, after 11 months when the people found that nothing had left to eat, they surrendered to Sikandar lodi. Once again he attacked on Gwalior, and was defeated by Maharaja Mansingh and his wife Mrignayani. A part from a couple of extremely rare gold and silver coins, all his coinage is of very debased billion, with a silver content of about 5%. Many coins have the appearance of copper and there may have been a good deal of contemporary forgery. Title on his coins: al-mutawakkil 'ala'l rahman sikandar shah bahlul shah sultan.
• Ibrahim II S/o Sikandar................................1517 - 21 Apr 1526
• He was the the youngest son of Sikandar. He was a fearless military leader and kept out the opposition for almost a decade. He was engaged in warfare with the Afghans and the Mughals for most of his reign and died trying to keep the Lodi Dynasty from annihilation. He faced a number of rebellions. The Mewar ruler Rana Sanga extended his empire right up to western Uttar Pradesh and threatened to attack Agra. Daulat Khan Lodi, governor of Lahore and Alam Khan, an uncle of Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi, invited Babur, the ruler of Kabul, to invade India. Ibrahim Lodi was defeated and killed by Babur in the first Battle of Panipat on April 21, 1526. Babar made his intentions of staying here by establishing Mughal Empire and deserted both Daulat Khan and Alam Khan. Ibrahim Shah Lodi in his Delhi realms struck only billion coins of half and quarter Tankas apparently based on a 96 rati tanka standard. The quality of the coinage are however poor. Elsewhere in Malwa on the conquest of Chanderi, he struck copper and silver coins on his name in Malwa style. There are also two strange pieces of two grams each having Ibrahim's name on one side and Kangra rulers Prayaga Chandra and Rama Chandra on the other side. Both Kangra rulers, ruled during 1517-1527. Title on his coins: al-mutawakkil 'ala'l rahman ibrahim shah sikandar shah sultan.
• Mahmud S/o Sikandar (at Bihar).................................1528
• Mahmud was a younger brother of Ibrahim and after the battle of Panipat in AH 932 (1526), was adopted by the remnants of Lodi faction as their leader. He was proclaimed king in Bihar in AH 935 (1528). A single extremely rare billion tanka of 80 rati (9.1g) on his name is known. Title on his coin: mahmud shah bin sikandar shah bin bahlul....
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• Delhi Sultanate
• Mohamed of Ghur's expedition in 1175 against Multan and subsequent invasion of Gujarat, Peshawar and Lahore and his victory over Rajputs in 1192 laid foundations of Muslim domination in India. Qtub-ud-din Aibak, his slave general annexed different parts of North India during the years followed.
• Qutub-ud-din Aibak: After the death of Mohamed of Ghur, Aibak declared himself as the Sultan of Delhi. He also occupied the throne of Gazni for forty years after defeating Yildiz. But the people drove him out owing to his excesses. This confined him to Delhi and was assassinated in 1210. Qutub-ud-din Aibak built Qutub Minar in Delhi, a land mark in history.
• Iltutmish: Aram Baksh succeeded him as Sultan Aram Shah. But Iltutmish of Ilbari deposed him and accented to the throne. He brought control over different rebellious parts of the Sultanate. Before his death in 1236, he captured Mundawar, Malwa and Ujjain and defeated Malik of Bengal, Yildiz and Qabacha.
• Rukh-ud-din Firoze Shah who succeeded Iltutmish was a misfit and was dethroned and killed in Nov. 1236. The Amirs and Nobles accepted Razzia, daughter of Iltutmish, to the throne. But being a woman she had a tough time and rebellious nobles put her to death in 1240.
• Muiz-ud-din Bahram and Ala-ud-din Masud are the rulers who succeeded Razzia. Both were regarded as worthless and incompetent. During their reign Mongols plundered Punjab.
• Nasir-ud-din Mahmud: By 1246, the Amirs and Maliks crowned Nasir-ud-din Mohamed, a younger son of Iltutmish. Since he spent most of his time in prayers, his minister, Giyas-ud-din Balban was running the country.
• Giyas-ud-din Balban: After the death of Nasir-ud-din, Gias-ud-din accented to the throne. He strengthened the army and subdued rebellions. Balbans's strong army helped him to check the Mongol advances to India. He died in 1287 after a reign of 22 years.
• The rulers who succeeded Balban were weak and unworthy. In1290, Jalal-ud-din Firoz Shah deposed Muiz-ud-din Khaliqubad, grandson of Balban and established Khalji Dynasty.
• Jalal-ud-din Khalji was 70 when he became Sultan. He was a peace-loving sultan. During his reign ala-ud-din, his nephew and son-in-law, marched into Devagiri and defeated Raja Ramachandradeva. Ala-ud-din returned with an enormous booty. The treacherous Ala-ud-din lured the Sultan into a trap and killed him.
• Ala-ud-din Khalji: In 1296, immediately after the murder of Sultan, Ala-ud-din proclaimed himself as the Sultan of Delhi. To safeguard his throne, he eliminated the supporters of former Sultan.
• Ala-ud-din fought with the Mongols and defeated them. He strengthened his army and took up military expeditions and annexed Gujarat, Ranthanbhor and Mewar. His passion for the beautiful queen Padmini lead to the siege of Chitor. When finally Chitor fell, the queen burned herself to death. Ala-ud-din conquered Deccan under the command of Malik Kafur. His expedition between 1307 and 1311 took him up to Cape-Comorin, the southern tip of India. Thus the whole of India was under the Sultanate of Delhi.
• Qutub-ud-din Mubarak: Ala-ud-din died in 1316. His son Qutub-ud-din Mubarak ruled India till 1320. In 1320, one of Khursarv's Parvari (low caste convert) associates stabbed him to death. After his death Khursrav ascended to the throne as Nassir-ud-din Khursrav Shah. His brief reign of four month was enough to alienate the Alai nobles who under the leadership of Ghasi Malik defeated and beheaded him in Delhi.
• Ghiaz-ud-din Tughluq: Since there were no male descendants for Ala-ud-din, The nobles persuaded Malik to sit on the throne under the name of Gias-ud-din Tughluq. He introduced many reforms on all walks of life and administration. He crushed the rebellions in Deccan and Bengal. In 1325 he died from the collapse of a wooden structure built by his son Jauna.
• Mohamed Bin Tughluq: After the death of Gias-ud-din, his son Jauna declared himself as the Sultan under the name of Mohamed Bin Tughluq. During his reign, the boundaries of Delhi Sultanate stretched from Peshwar in the north to Madurai in the south and Sind in the west to Assam in the east.
• Mohamed Bin Tughluq was a learned ruler but lacked practical judgement. His well intentioned reforms created confusion and hardships. He shifted his capital to Devagiri, the centre of his empire. But because of inadequate arrangements, the capital was moved back. He introduced token coins in copper and brass at par with silver and gold coins in value. Improper management lead to counterfeiting and as a result, the token coins were withdrawn. He died in 1351.
• Feroz Shah Tughluq who succeeded Mohamed Bin Tughluq was a weak personality and could not contain the rebellions those broke out in the Sultanate. After the death of Feroz Tughluq, civil wars broke out in the Sultanate. During Nasar-ud-din Mohamed Tughluq's reign (1394-1412), the Mongol leader Timur invaded India and captured Delhi. Mohamed came back to Delhi when Timur returned after 15 years. In 1414, Khizi Khan Sayyidoccupied the throne. He was succeeded by the Lodis. Ibrahim Lodi was the last ruler of Delhi. In 1526, Babur defeated him at the first battle of Panipat and established the rule of Mughuls in India ending the Sultanate of Delhi
• Dateline: 1206AD-1526AD
• With the dawn of the second millennia, Indian history entered a phase of volatility, with new ideas and religions making an appearance. India which had largely developed indigenously over the past thousand years of its history, would become a centre for invaders from Central Asia and Persia. Such events were significant because the invaders would bring with them a new set of ideas which would have a lasting impact on Indian culture. Until the rise of the Mughal Empire in 1526, North India and South India would have separate kingdoms. The North would be ruled by the new Sultans who formed the Delhi Sultanate whereas the South would be divided amongst many kings, out of which the Chola dynasty would emerge as the dominant force. The Mughal empire would however, once again reunite the two parts of the country.
• In 1000 AD, the peaceful balance of power in North India was shattered by an invasion of an Afghan conqueror, Mahmud of Ghazni. Over the next 25 years he would launch 17 campaigns and each campaign was one of massive plunder. The kingdom of Ghazni in Afghanistan was adjacent to Punjab, separated by the Hindu Kush mountains. The lush, fertile plains of Punjab lay below them, and the temptation to conquer India was strong. Mahmud in his several invasions of India, amassed a massive amount of wealth which was used to replenish the treasury at Ghazni. His main targets were the prosperous temple towns of North India, like Mathura, Thanesar, Kanauk and Somnath. These towns had a high concentration of wealth, and it was inevitable that they would be prime targets for Ghazni's invasions. Mahmud died in 1030 AD, much to the relief of the Indian population, but he had in his lifetime laid the foundations for Islamic kings in India. The Indian kings failed to realize the impact his invasions had, dismissing him as just another invader, a passing phenomena, not worth worrying about.
• In 1182 another Afghan was entering India. Muhammad Ghauri .His entry is important, because unlike Mahmud, he was not interested in looting India but was looking at it to settle down and establish a kingdom. He reliazed that even more fertile land lay east, and he slowly inched into India. This brought him into conflict with the Indian kings, and in 1191 the Rajputs in a rare show of unity, rallied around Prithviraja and defeated Muhammad. Muhammad was imprisoned, but Prithviraja released him and sent him back to Afghanistan. A year later Muhammad returned with re-inforcements and defeated Prithviraja. Muhammad became the ruler of Delhi, and went on to conquer other regions in North India. He appointed a general, Qutab-ud-din-Aibak to look after his India possessions. The years between 1193 and 1206 were of great uncertainty and had the Indian kings been more united, they might have been able to defeat the invaders. However, the opportunity to do so slipped by and the invaders slowly began consolidating their position. In 1206, Muhammed was assassinated. His general Qutab-ud-din-Aibak then declared himself independent of the Afghan state and founded what came to be known as the Slave Dynasty (for its founder was a former slave of Muhammed). This dynasty is the beginning of what came to be known as the Delhi Sultanate period.
• Dateline: 1206AD-1526AD
• With the dawn of the second millennia, Indian history entered a phase of volatility, with new ideas and religions making an appearance. India which had largely developed indigenously over the past thousand years of its history, would become a centre for invaders from Central Asia and Persia. Such events were significant because the invaders would bring with them a new set of ideas which would have a lasting impact on Indian culture. Until the rise of the Mughal Empire in 1526, North India and South India would have separate kingdoms. The North would be ruled by the new Sultans who formed the Delhi Sultanate whereas the South would be divided amongst many kings, out of which the Chola dynasty would emerge as the dominant force. The Mughal empire would however, once again reunite the two parts of the country.
• In 1000 AD, the peaceful balance of power in North India was shattered by an invasion of an Afghan conqueror, Mahmud of Ghazni. Over the next 25 years he would launch 17 campaigns and each campaign was one of massive plunder. The kingdom of Ghazni in Afghanistan was adjacent to Punjab, separated by the Hindu Kush mountains. The lush, fertile plains of Punjab lay below them, and the temptation to conquer India was strong. Mahmud in his several invasions of India, amassed a massive amount of wealth which was used to replenish the treasury at Ghazni. His main targets were the prosperous temple towns of North India, like Mathura, Thanesar, Kanauk and Somnath. These towns had a high concentration of wealth, and it was inevitable that they would be prime targets for Ghazni's invasions. Mahmud died in 1030 AD, much to the relief of the Indian population, but he had in his lifetime laid the foundations for Islamic kings in India. The Indian kings failed to realize the impact his invasions had, dismissing him as just another invader, a passing phenomena, not worth worrying about.
• In 1182 another Afghan was entering India. Muhammad Ghauri .His entry is important, because unlike Mahmud, he was not interested in looting India but was looking at it to settle down and establish a kingdom. He reliazed that even more fertile land lay east, and he slowly inched into India. This brought him into conflict with the Indian kings, and in 1191 the Rajputs in a rare show of unity, rallied around Prithviraja and defeated Muhammad. Muhammad was imprisoned, but Prithviraja released him and sent him back to Afghanistan. A year later Muhammad returned with re-inforcements and defeated Prithviraja. Muhammad became the ruler of Delhi, and went on to conquer other regions in North India. He appointed a general, Qutab-ud-din-Aibak to look after his India possessions. The years between 1193 and 1206 were of great uncertainty and had the Indian kings been more united, they might have been able to defeat the invaders. However, the opportunity to do so slipped by and the invaders slowly began consolidating their position. In 1206, Muhammed was assassinated. His general Qutab-ud-din-Aibak then declared himself independent of the Afghan state and founded what came to be known as the Slave Dynasty (for its founder was a former slave of Muhammed). This dynasty is the beginning of what came to be known as the Delhi Sultanate period.
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BACKGROUND
Until the rise of the west, India was possibly the richest country in the world. China was a rival in wealth, but we are not placed to compare the two nations. To the extent that India’s climate was more temperate than China’s, and the land probably more fertile, it is likely India was the richer.
Such a country presented an irresistible target for the ravening Mongols and theirdescendents who settled in present day Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikstan, all within comparatively easy reach of northwestern India.
The northwest was, at this time, a mish-mash of warring kingdoms, more interested in settling scores with their neighbors than in unifying against the Mongols. It is then unsurprising that Mahmud Ghaznavi’s armies so handily defeated those of the Indian kings.
Mahmud Ghanznavi (translated: Mahmud of Ghazni) was not, according to some, like future Muslim invaders of India, a religious proselytizer. Indeed, with the exception of Punjab, which he needed as his "forward operating base" for his Indian expeditions, he made no attempt to rule any of his conquests. His intent was economic and political. It has been said that the destruction of Somnath is mentioned only in Muslim texts, whose authors had the habit of exaggeration. This view goes as far as to say in the opinion of some, the Ghaznivad empire fell apart because of Mahmud’s excessive reliance on Hindu soldiers and generals.
Others, however, have argued the reverse: he may have wanted the money, but also wanted to spread Islam and did his best to destroy temples even when offered large sums to leave the temples alone. The Indian historian Romila Thapar[2002] takes a middle view: Mahmud needed money for his wars; India’s temples were known to contain fabulous treasures; we need not look for more complicated explanations. Thapar said he was undoubtedly an iconoclast, and hardly averse to destroying temples to gain favor when he went to heaven. Nonetheless, he warred equally with other Islamic sects, because he was a Sunni. The secondary purpose of his raids may have been tied up with his need to convert Shias to Sunni beliefs.
Nonetheless, for our purposes, which are military history, Mahmud Ghaznavi'smotives and large aims are irrelevant, and we say without hesitation we have little idea of where the truth lies.
Understandably, Indians know Mahmud Ghaznavi because of his invasions of India. But he fought many wars to the west, and captured large parts of today's Iran, and that was an entirely different part of his life. His father was a Turkish slave; this would be one reason he looked to the west.
While we have believed, as have most school and college students of Indian history, that there were 17 invasions, some say there were 14. We hope someone with the necessary scholarship can enlighten us on this.
MAHMUD GHAZNAVI
Born in 971, Mahmud Ghaznavi was the elder son of Subuktagin, the king ofGhazni. When Subuktagin attacked King Jaipal, Mahmud fought for his father in the battlefield. Though Mahmud was the elder son of his father, it is said that in his last days, Subuktagin was not happy with Mahmud. So, when Subuktagin died in 997, his younger son Ismail became the king of Ghazni.
Ismail reigned only for a little time. Very soon, Mahmud defeated him and became the king.
Mahmud began a series of seventeen raids into northwestern India at the end of the 10th century. Nonetheless, he did not attempt to rule Indian territory except for the Punjab, which was his gateway to India, as Ghazni lay in present day Afghanistan.

http://andrejkoymasky.com/liv/fam/biom1/mahm1.html
INVASIONS [partial list, work in progress]
1000 AD: Indian Frontier Towns

1001-03 AD: Jaipal, Peshawar
Jaipal was the king of Hindushahi Kingdom. Mahmud had already fought against him, when Subuktagin was the king of Ghazni. When Mahmud became the king, he decided to attack on Hindushahi Kingdom, as its king, Jaipal, was his old enemy.
In 1001, Mahmud attacked the Hindushahi Kingdom. 15,000 Hindu soldiers were killed. Jaipal was defeated and captured. He was presented before Mahmud with his 15 other relatives; 500,000 enslaved persons were also brought along.
Mahmud looted all his wealth. He received 250,000 Dinars to free Jaipal. About 5,00,000 Indians were taken to Ghazni as slaves. Though Jaipal was freed, but he refused to survive his disgrace. He cast himself upon a funeral pyre and died.

1008: Anandpal
Anandpal was the son of Jaipal, and now became the king of Hindushahi Kingdom.
In 1008, Mahmud attacked on Anandpal. Anandpal called other Hindu kings to help him. The kings of Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kannauj, Delhi, Ajmer etc. came to help him with their armies. In the battlefield of Peshawar, both the armies remained standing before each other, but no one attacked. Meanwhile the Khokhars (a race) also came there to help Hindus. Mahmud deployed 6,000 archers to attack.Khokhars attacked the Muslims and killed approximately 5,000 Muslims.
Unfortunately, Jaipal's elephant became infuriated and ran from the battlefield. As soon as Jaipal left the battlefield, the Hindu army got confused and ran away. Muslims chased them and killed 20,000 Hindus. Thus, the best organized national efforts ever made by medieval Hindu India against the foreigners ended.
1009: Invasion of Nagarkot [Kangra]
Nagarkot was very famous for its wealth kept in its temples. So, Mahmud decided to invade Nagarkot. Like a swarm of locusts, his army destroyed everything in its path.
Paralyzed with fear, the defenders opened the city’s gate and fell on the ground in submission.
Mahmud got so much jewelry, gold and silver, that when he returned to his capital, his people congregated to see the incredible wealth of India.
1014: Thanesar
Mahmud came to know of the riches of Thanesar’s temples. In 1014, he invadedThanesar. The Hindus wanted to reach on a compromise, but Mahmud refused. His army destroyed the city, massacred the inhabitants, and plundered the sacred temples.
1015: Kashmir Valley
1018-19: Mathura and Kannauj
When Mahmud invaded Mathura, he was amazed to see so many huge and beautiful Hindu temples. No one would resist him, and he entered the city unopposed, leaving with untold wealth.
Then, he attacked Kannauj in January of 1019. The King of Kannauj, RajpalPratihar did not dare to stop him and ran away. The invaders looted the sacred temples. Many innocent people were killed.
The king of Kannauj, Rajpal Pratihar accepted the superiority of Mahmud Ghaznaviand then Mahmud turned back for Ghazni.
1021: Kalinjar
Rajpal Pratihar, the king of Kannauj, had accepted the superiority of Mahmud. This made other Rajput kings angry. The Rajput kings of Kalinjar, Gandda Chandel, with the king of Gwalior and others attacked on Kannauj and killed the king RajpalPratihar.
Mahmud was unhappy with this. To punish the culprits, he attacked Kalinjar. The king, Gandda Chandel accepted the superiority of Mahmud. Mahmud was satisfied with the money the King gave him and he returned.
1023: Lahore
1925: Somnath, 16th Invasion

The most famous and terrible invasion launched by Mahmud was his sixteenth, against the Somnath Temple in Gujrat, western India. This was an immense distance from Ghanzni, but one supposes by now he was so feared that he had easy passage.
The Somnath temple was very famous for its treasures. There were one thousand priests to serve the temple. Hundreds of dancers and singers played before its gate. There was famous Linga, a rude pillar stone, adorned with gems embroidered with precious like stars, which decorated the shrine.
The brave Hindu Rajputs came forward to defend the temple. Shouting 'Allah huAkbar', the enemy tried to entered into the temple. The Hindus fought very bravely and the invaders could not damage the temple. The battle lasted for three days.
After three days, the invaders succeeded and entered into the Somnath temple.
Mahmud ordered his men to destroy the sacred idol, Linga. He looted the treasures of the temple. It is said that he got wealth worth 20-million Dinars, eighty times the already huge sum he had gained on his first invasion.
1026: The 17th and Last Invasion
After looting the Somnath temple, when Mahmud was going back to Ghazni, theJats had attacked his army. So, to punish the Jats, he returned and defeated them in 1026.
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Mughal Empire
Babur(1526-30)
Originally Babar was the ruler of Farghana.In the first Battle of Panipat fought on 21April, 1526 between Babur and Lodhi Emperor Ibrahim Lodhi in which victory of Babur over the Lodhi laid the foundation of Mughal Empire in India.In 1527 Babur defeated Rana Sanga in the Battle of Khanwa.Afghans under Muhmmad Lodhi were defeated by Babur at the Battle of Ghagara in 1529.Babur died at Agra in 1530 but according to his will his body was taken to Kabul and buried there.Babur was a prolific writer as well as poet has written his autobiography Tuzuk-i- Baburi in Chaghatay Turki.
Humayun(1530-56)
Humayun was the eldest son of Babur .Sher Shah Suri an ambitious ruler of Bengal had fought Humayun in the Battle of Chausa in 1539 in which Humayun was defeated and Mughal force was almost destroyed. In the beginning Humayun was helped by the ruler of Amarkot Rana Virsal where Hamida Banu gave birth to Akbar in 1542. Humayun finally got shelter in the court of Emperor Shah Tahmasp of Persia. Humayun reconquered his Indian empire with the help of Shah of Iran in 1555 by defeating Afghans. He died in 1556. Humayun was passionately devoted to the study of astronomy, loved painting and wrote Persian poetry.
Akbar (1556-1605)
Akbar was born at Amarkot in 1542.At the age of 14 he became the emperor after the death of his father Humayun.Bairam Khan was the regent up to 1560. In 1556 second Battle of Panipat was fought between the Hemu and Mughals which Muhgals won under the generalship of Bairam Khan.Raja Bharmal the Kuchchhwaha King of Amber married his eldest daughter to Akbar and subsequently Raja Bhagwan Das and Man Singh were inducted into the Imperial Mughal service. Almost all Rajput states were subjugated and they submitted to Akbar but the Rana of Mewar continued to defy Mughal suzerainty.

In the battle of Haldighati in 1576, Rana Pratap was defeated by the Mughals under Man Singh.In 1562 Akbar discontinued the practice of enslaving the defeated soldiers in the battles. In 1563 pilgrimage tax was abolished. In 1564 the discriminatory jaziya tax was abolished. In 1575 Ibadatkhana was built at Fetahpur Sekri for religious discussions. Initially only Sunni were allowed later all religious groups such as Shias, Hindus, Christians and Zorastrians were allowed to participate. In 1579 Akbar read the Khutba composed by Faizi in his own name. In September 1579 Mahzar was proclaimed by Akbar which made him the Imam-i-Adil.In 1582 Din-i-Illahi or Tauhid-i-IIahi was started by Akbar which is considered by some historians a new religion started by Akbar.Akbar died in 1605.He was buried at Sikandra.
Jahangir (1605-27)
Prince Salim ascended the throne in 1695.He assumed the title of Jahangir.He issued 12 ordinances after becoming emperor. In 1611 he married Mehrunnissa who was later on called Nur Jahan, her father Gyas Beg was given the title of Itmaduddaulah. During Jahangir’s time relations with Rajput of Mewar improved and Amar Singh submitted in 1615 to the Mughal.The practice of enrolling Marathas into the Mughal army and nobility was started.


In 1606 Jahangir’s son Khusrau revolted but defeated and imprisoned. Guru Arjun Dev 5th Guru of Sikhs was beheaded on the charge of blessing Khusaru.In 1625 Mahabat Khan imprisoned Jahangir and Nurjahan.Jahangir wrote Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian. During his time painting reached to its zenith in Mughal court.Jahangir died in 1627 at Bhimbar in Kashmir. He is buried at Dilkush garden in Lahore.
Shah Jahan (1627-58)
Prince Khurram succeeded Jahangir and adopted the title of Shah Jahan in 1627. In 1607 Jahangir had granted him a Mansab of 800 zat. In 1632 Portuguese were defeated by him near Hugli.In 1612 Shahjahan married Anjumand Bano Begum who later became famous as Mumtaz Mahal.In 1636 Ahmadnagar was annexed by Shahjahan.His reign is described by French travelor Bernier and Taverier and the Italian traveler Manucci.

In 1638 Ali Mardan Khan the Persian governor of Khandhar surrendered the port to the Mughal government of Kabul. Bundelas under Jujhar Singh rebelled during the Shahjahan reign.In the end of his reign there was a bloody war of succession among his sons in which Aurangzeb become successful due to Shahjahan; favour to Dara Shikoh to the throne.Aurangzeb imprisoned Shahjahan at Agra Fort and he died in captivity in 1666.He was buried besides his wife’s grave in Taj Mahal.
Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years. During his long reign the Mughal Empire reached its territorial climax. At its height it stretched from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the south and from the Hindukush in the west to Chittagong in the east. But much of the Aurangzeb’s time was spent in trying to put down revolts in different parts of the empire.Aurangzeb sent his army to the Deccan to curtail the rising Maratha power and to prevent them from overpowering the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda.
Mansabdari System in Mughal Empire
Akbar organized the nobility and his army by means of the Mansabdari system. Every officer was assigned a rank valued in terms of a certain number of mounted soldiers. The ranks normally given to top officers and nobles were valued from 10 to 5000 later raised to 7000.The ranks were divided into two: zat and sawar.Zat means personal where by the status and salary of the individual was fixed. Out of this salary in addition to meeting his own personal expenses, he had to maintain a stipulated quota of horses, elephants, camels, mules and carts.
The other rank indicated the number of cavalrymen (sawar) a mansabdar was required to maintain. For every sawar, a mansabdar was paid at a rate of Rs 240 per annum over and above his salary. A person was required to maintain as many sawars as his zat rank was placed in the first category of that rank; if he maintained less than half then in the third category. Thus there were three categories in every rank.No one could have a higher quota of sawars than his zat rank.The mansab was not hereditary.

The sawar rank was distinguished by two special features: For every 10 cavalrymen the mansabdar had to maintain 20 horses and a provision was made that the contingents of the nobles should be mixed ones that is drawn from all the groups- Mughal, Pathan, Hindustani and Rajput.This was intended to weaken the spirit of tribal and ethnic exclusiveness. The mansabdars were assigned a jagir in lieu of cash payment. Although modifications in the system were made from time to time this remained the basic structure as long as the Empire held together. The number of mansabdars rose from 2069 at the time of Jahangir’s accession in 1605 to 8000 in 1637 during Shah Jahan’s reign and to 11,546 during the latter half of the Aurangzeb’s reign.
Land Revenue System in Mughal Empire
Initially Akbar adopted Sher Shah’s system. But in 1580 Akbar instituted a new system called Dahsala.Under this the average produce of different crops and their average prices prevailing over the last 10 years were calculated and 1/3rd the average produce fixed in rupees per bigha was demanded as the state’s share.
Later a further improvement was made. Not only were local prices taken into account,parganas which were the largest fiscal and administration having the same type of productivity were grouped into separate assessment circles. Thus the peasant was required to pay on the basis of local produce as well as local prices. This system continued till the end of the 17th century.
Central Administration in Mughal Empire
In Islam the real sovereign of the world in Allah and Khalifh is his representative on the earth. Muslim rulers in India prior to Akbar recognized the authority of Khalifa but the institution of Kingship as mentioned by Abul Fazl in Aziz-i- Akbari that the Padshah or Shahansha is the vice-regent of god on earth,Farr-i-Izadi has given new dimension to the theory Kingship in India.
Emperor- The form of Mughal government was despotic,monarchy,the emperor was the head of the executive,legislature,judiciary and the Army,the only limits on the autocracy of the King were the mobility and the Ulema.

Vakil- Vakil was the representative of king and hence exercises all powers on behalf and in the name of king.Bairam Khan was the Vakil during Akbar’s time. Wazir or Diwan- In his capacity as Diman-i-kulk he was the head of the revenue dept when there was no vakil,he acted as the PM as well and hence called the wazir. Mir Bakshi- Head of the military dept and also the pay master general after the introduction of the mansabdari system.
Sudr us Sadar- Head of the ecclesiastical dept regulation of religion and charitable works was his prime concern. Khan-i- Saman- Head of Royal household and karkhans. Qazi-ul-Quzat- Head of the justice dept.
Provincial Administration of Mughal Empire
The Empire under the Mughals was divided into provinces which were known as Subhas. In the beginning Akbar’s reign total number of subhas were 12 later on at the time of his death it were 15.During Shah Jahan ‘s time there were 19 subhas.During the Aurangzeb’s reign Mughal Empire had 21 subhas. Some of the important officials were: Subedar or Sipalibalar- He was the governor, his function were the maintenance of law and order, enforcement of imperial decrees and administration of criminal justice in the subha.He was appointed by the Emperor. Diwan-He was in charge of revenue administration of the province. Bakshi-Discharged the duties as Mir Bakshi at the central level. Qazi, sadr, Muhtasib were other official in the provinces.
Local Administration
The Subha’s were further divided into sarkars which was headed by Shiqdar.Sarkar was divided into Parganas which was a group of villages. Village was the lowest unit of administration and Patwari and Qanuongo were the financial officials. Mahals were the group of villages combined for fiscal purposes.
Economy in Mughal Empire
Agriculture has been mainstay of economy in India since time immemorial. During Mughal time also it was not only the largest source of income to state but it was also the source of livelihood to the large majority of people in India. Main crops that were grown were cereals, millets, oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, hemp, chilli, indigo and betel.
Tobacco and potato were introduced by Portuguese in India during Jahangir’s reign. Ajmer was famous for the best quality of sugar cane. Gujarat and Agra was famous for indigo cultivation.Babur introduced many central Asian fruits to India. During Akbar’s reign Firoz Shah’s Yamuna canal was repaired for the first time. In the reign of Shah Jahan,Nahr-i-Bihisht was built by opening the canal at Khizrabad for irrigation purposes.

The Muslim ruling class preferred to settle in the towns and cities. The artistic life style of Mughal ruling clan encouraged handicrafts, art and architecture and trade in India. The merchants and trader class was divided into big business magnates owing hundreds of ships, rich merchants and traders and petty shopkeepers. Hundi system was developed by shroffs for carrying out large transactions. Trade both intra country and outside India grew tremendously during the Mughal period particularly because of the following factors:
The political and economic unification of India under the Mughal rule and establishment of law and order over extensive areas created the favorable environment for trade and commerce. The improvement of transport and communications by the Mughals.Encouragement given by the Mughals to the monetization of economy. Arrival of European traders from the beginning of 17th century onwards and the growth of the European trade. Decca was the famous centre of muslin and textiles. Agra, Fatehpur Sikri and Lahore were the main centers of silk weaving. Surat, Cambay, Braoch in Gujarat was the main ports for foreign trade.


Mughal Coinage
The Mughals attached a great importance to the coinage as Akbar started to practice of issuing coins and established royal mint with Abdus Samad the famous painter being the head of it. The Mughal coinage was mainly based on the rupee and dam issued by Sher Shah Suri.The rupee was the most famous of all Mughal coins.
Muhar was the standard gold coin of about 170-175 grain and it was very popular. Jalali was a silver coin in square shape issued by Akbar. Nisar,Nur Afshan and Khair qasul were the smaller silver coins issued by Jahangir. Daun was the copper coin used by the common people in day to day transactions. The copper Daun also known as falus, sikah falus, Nisfi, damra and damri.
Literature in Mughal Empire
The Mughal period saw great developments in the field of literature. Many Mughal emperors and members of the royal family were great men of letters. Babar the first Mughal emperor was one of the pioneers of Turkish poetry and also the author of a very valuable autobiography in Turkish BabarNama which was later translated into Persian.Gulbadan Begum sister of Humayun wrote the Humayun Nama.Jahangir the great connoisseur of painting wrote his autobiography the Tuzuk-i- Jahangiri.Aurangzeb also was a prolific writer and the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was a notable Urdu poet.
Hindi literature made significant progress during Akbar’s reign.Tulsidas and the Surdas wrote in this period.Keshavdas a great poet wrote on themes of love.Rahim’s dohas or couplets are extremely popular. It was also in Akbar’s time that the great Sanskrit work on styles of writing, the Alankarashekhara by Keshava Misra appeared. This was the period of many notable writings in the Persian language.Abul Fazl wrote the Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar Nama.Abul Fazl’s brother Faizi was a great poet of Persian and was responsible for the translation of many Sanskrit works into Persian.Akbar had started a whole dept for translation of works like Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the Atharva –Veda, the Bhagvad Gita and the Panchatantra.

Many important historical works were produced under the emperors after Akbar.Some of the important historians were Abdul Hamid Lahori,Khafi Khan,Muhammad Kazim and Sujan Rai Bhandari.Literature in modern Indian languages also continued to grow. The famous book of Bihari called the Satsai in Hindi belongs to this period. One of the most significant developments during the medieval period was the birth of the Urdu language. This new language soon developed one of the richest literatures as a modern Indian language. It produced great poets like Wali,Mir Dard,Mir Taqi Mir,Nazir Akbarabadi,Asadullah Khan Ghalib.
Many original prose works in Urdu were written like Muhammad Hussain Azad’s Darbar-i-Akbari.The Urdu novel was one of the earliest development in the Indian languages. Urdu became the language of the urban people of northern India and the Deccan.
Education under the Mughals
Under the Mughal rule special attention was given to education. During the Akbar’s reign important changes were introduced in the syllabus of education through the efforts of Shah Fathullah Shirazi.Islamic schools were attached to mosques, Khanqah of the Sufis and tombs. Special buildings were also constructed for imparting education. Their expenses were met from endowments.
During the Mughal period the principal centres of learning were at Lahore,Delhi,Ajmer,Sialkot,Multan,Ahmadabad,Allaha bad,Lucknow,Murshidabad,Dacca.Many scholars were attracted to these institutions from Persia and Central Asia. Students received education free of cost. Famous scholars received fixed stipends from the royal treasury.

Provisions were made for the teaching of Persian; the official language of the government in the Maktabs.Nizamiyah system of education became popular during the later days of the Mughals. The aim of this system was to create such ability in the scholar so that he is able to acquire perfection in any branch of learning through self-study and personal efforts. While Muslims received education in Maktabs,Hindus had their pathsalas for imparting religious instructions.

Mughal Society

Society in Mughal times was organized on a feudal basis and the head of the social system was Emperor. He enjoyed an unparallel status. He was the ultimate authority in everything. Next in rank were the nobility along the zamindars.The Mughal nobles monopolized most of the jobs in the country. Socially and economically the Mughal nobility formed a privileged class. There were men of every type and nationality among the Mughal nobles. Clan or family links were the most important considerations for recruitment and admission to the aristocratic class of the society.Zamindars or the chieftains also constituted the nobility. They had their own armed forces and generally lived in forts or garhis which was both a place of refuge and a status symbol. There was a large class of merchants and traders. They had their own rights based on tradition and protection of life and property. They also maintained a high standard of living.

During Mughal period the Indian society was in the process of developing into a common society for the religious groups of Hindus and Muslims.Inter-mixing and adaptation of each others culture was fairly common. Among the prevalent social practices the purdah system was one of that but it was practiced more by the women of upper classes. The child marriage was prevalent. Though polygamy was prevalent in upper sections of society the common people followed monogamy.
Dowry system was common in Hindu society. The sati was prevalent though Akbar tried to discourage sati by issuing orders but he could not forbid it altogether.Aurangzeb was the only Mughal who issued definite orders in 1664 forbidding sati. The Muslim society was also divided based on the place of origination. The widow remarriage was prevalent in the society. Economically Muslim woman was entitled to a share in the inheritance.
The Hindu society was divided into four castes. The coming of Muslims and their constant condemnation of the caste system made the system more rigid. The Hindu society in order to strengthen itself recasted the Smritis and tried to bring back from the Islamic fold those Muslims who were converts from Hinduism.
It was a common practice to maintain a large contingent of slaves both males and females. The prisoners of war were generally the main constituent of this system. They were supposed to perform every task free of cost. But they were not subject to torture.
The lower class comprised of the cultivators,artisans,small traders, shop-keepers ,household servants, slaves etc.Most of them were condemned to live a hard life. Their lives were simple and their belongings were meagre.


Mughal Army
The Mughal government was military in origin and it retained its military character. The emperor was the head of the army and its commander-in-chief. All the govt officials were enrolled in the army and were commanders of a specified number of horsemen. The Mughal force consisted of five branches of infantry, cavalry, fire-arms, elephants and war boats. The cavalry was the most important and was regarded as the flower of the army. Infantry was the largest branch of the army but it was ill paid and rugged branch. The firearms men consisted of gunners and musketeers.
The Mughals had no navy of their own. They delegated the navel defense of the western coast to the Abysinians and Sidis of Janjira. In lower Bengal the govt maintained a flotilla of boats of various types. These boats were placed under a darogha and were equipped with artillery. There was no regimental drill or discipline and no real training. The actual number of troops was only a fraction of the normal strength as recorded in Mir Bakshi’s register. There was no contract between the commander-in-chief and the individual troops who looked upon the Mansabdars as their immediate chiefs. The pay of the troops was generally in arrears.

During the time of the later Mughals sometimes their salaries for three years or more were not paid. Originally the strength of the Mughal army depended upon the mobility of the cavalry. This mobility was lost in the hills and deserts of Rajputana and Maharashtra.During the later days of Aurangzeb’s reign it became a prey to Marathas and in the 18th century it proved hopeless against the European trained battalions.

Decline of Mughal Empire
Aurangzeb’s death in 1706 set off the rapid decline of the Mughal Empire. His successors were weak and increasingly became mere tools in the hands of the nobles. Taking advantage of this the Rajputs, Sikhs and the Afghans openly defied the authority of Mughal emperor.
Even more disturbing was the fact that the assertion of independence had spread to other parts of the empire. The governors of Hyderabad, Bengal and Avadh established independent kingdoms and the Marathas reorganized under a new system of government that of the Brahman ministers the Peshwas.T hey were gradually extending their control towards north India.

At the time of foreign invasions such as those of Nadir Shah (1729) and Ahmad Shah Abdali (1747-61) further weakened the empire. The rising power of the Marathas was temporarily checked by their defeat at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in the third battle of Panipat in 1761. The Mughals were now reduced to the area around Delhi. They continued to rule in name until 1857.Real political power was shifted to the hands of the new kingdoms.
Causes of decline of Mughal Empire
Although the Mughal Empire began breaking –up in the 18th century, the causes of its decline can be traced back much earlier.Aurangzeb’s long reign of constant and uninterrupted fighting was not only a big drain on the exchequer but it also led to the negligence of administration. Politically he made number of mistakes which undermined the strength of the Mughal Empire.
The empire was also met with financial troubles. There was neither enough money nor jagirs to assign to various officers. This led to rivalry among the nobles for the possessing the existing jagirs.They tried to extort the maximum income from their jagirs at the cost of the peasantry. Attempts were made to transform existing offices and jagirs into hereditary ones.

The officers invariably reduced their expenditure by not maintaining their full quota of troops thus weakening the empire’s armed strength. The condition of the peasant had also gradually worsened. Higher revenue demands, a greater level of exploitation by jagirdars because of frequent transfers tried to extract as much as possible during their tenure as Jagirdar.
The practice of farming the land revenue to the highest bidder after the death of Aurangzeb increased peasant discontentment. The rebellions of the Satnamis, Jats, and the Sikhs were indicative of this. The Zamindars too became rebellious and withheld revenue. The Mughal Empire might have continued to exist for a long time if its administration and armed power had not broken down.
Art and Architectural in Medieval India
The coming of the Turks inaugurated a new era in the history of Indian architecture, the Turks brought with them architectural ideas developed in Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. They came into contact with the traditions that had already been developed in India. The interaction of these two traditions resulted in a new synthesis of architectural styles. The rulers of the Sultanate were great patrons of architecture and under them the process of synthesis started. It continued with many regional variations in the different kingdoms. During the Mughal period the flowering of this synthesis took place and some of the greatest monuments of India were built. Based on the interaction of the two traditions a unique Indian style of architecture was developed in this period.

Main features of Islamic architecture
The Mosque consisted of a large rectangular open courtyard surrounded by arcades on all four sides. The mehrab which faces Mecca indicates the direction to the prayer. The call to the worship was made from a tall tower or minaret. In some mosques there were many minerats. Another characteristic feature was the arch in the gateway and other places. The dome was another prominent feature of the mosque and the mausoleum. The chief decorative element was sculpturing the building with geometrical designs and lettering in calligraphic style. Some of these features were new to Indian architecture. The ancient Indian buildings were decorated with beautiful carving and sculpture while the Muslim buildings were marked by simplicity and lack of adornment. When the new buildings began to be erected the two styles were gradually synthesized into a new and unique style.
Architecture under the Sultanate
The Turkish rulers utilized the services of the local designers and craftsmen who were among the most skilful in the world. The new fusion that started to take place avoided the extreme simplicity of the Islamic architecture and the lavish decoration of the earlier Indian architecture. Among the first buildings to be erected were the mosques at Delhi and Ajmer by Qutbddin Aibak. The mosque built in Delhi was called the Quwwatul Islam mosque. It measured about 70x30 meters. The central arch of this mosque which is decorated with beautiful sculptured calligraphy still stands and is about 17 meters high and about 7 metres wide. The successor of Qutbuddin Iltutmish was a great builder. He further extended the mosque. He also completed the building of the Qutb Minar which had been started by Qutbuddin and now stood in the extended courtyard of the mosque.

This is a tower rising to a height of about 70 meters and is one of the most renowned monuments of India. The next important buildings belong to the reign of Alauddin Khalji. He enlarged the Quwwatul Islam mosque still further and built a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque, the Alai Darwaza. Decorative element was introduced to beautify the building. He also started building a minar which was designed to be double the height of Qutb Minar but the project remained unfulfilled. The Tughlaqs concentrated on the building of new cities in Delhi like Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah and Ferozabad. A number of buildings was erected which differed in their style from the earlier buildings. Massive and strong structures like the tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and the walls of Tughlaqabad were built. The buildings of the Tughlaq period were significant from the point of view of the development of architecture. They were not beautiful but massive and very impressive.
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