Ahmed bro,
I think if we could prepare these essays(essays with headings and sub-headings)
(1) Environmentalism & Possibilism
(2) Scope and Importance of Human Geography
(3) Human economic activities(special emphasis on primary & sec)
(4) Energy resources(The world & pakistan)
(5) Migrations and settlements

And cram some facts and figures related to
(1) Major crops(Wheat,sugarcane,cotton,rice)
(2) Major industries(Iron & steel,cotton ind,fisheries etc)
(3) Population distribution(pop density,distribution,cause of such distr. etc)
(4) Religions of the world(population distr. w.r.t religion)

with special reference to South Asia and Pakistan.then I think 60 odd marks kahin nahin gae.

well mr.mussa apki to kya hi bat ha apko to parhne ki bhi zarorat nhi ap ho hi itne intelligent.hum jese students notes bana kar hi kam chala lete han g.

@candidguy dear i was not serious at all.i was just kidding i know what were you talking about.ohh..yes your notes are reallyyyyyyyyy. good.keep it up.

__________________
GEO to aise k sab tumhara ha,MARO to aisa jaise tmhara kuch bhi nhi.

Maza deti han zindagi ki thokerin unko,jinhen NAAM-E-KHUDA le kar sanbhal janey ki adat ho.

Cultures and Societies

Culture of Pakistan

Identification.

As part of India's independence from Great Britain in 1947, a partition took part of their land and created Pakistan as a separate Islamic nation. It is estimated that approximately 95 percent of the population are Muslim, but members of several minority religions live there, including some Hindus, Christians, Parsis, Sikhs, and Buddhists. Although the modern nation of Pakistan was but fifty-three years old in 2000, it has territorial areas and tribal populations whose histories date back many centuries; thus Pakistan has both an ancient and a relatively new identity.


Location and Geography.

Pakistan is in South Asia and is 339,697 square miles (879,815 square kilometers) in area. It was created from what had been the northwest side of India. All of the country except the southern portion is landlocked, with Afghanistan to the northwest, Jammu and Kashmir to the northeast, India to the east and southeast, and Iran to the west. In the southern portion, along the shores of the city of Karachi, which was the original capital when the nation was formed in l947, is the Arabian Sea. Karachi is well known for its shorelines. Most of the northern section of the country consists of mountains and also the famous Khyber Pass, whose history goes back several thousand years. It is in this northern section where most of the ancient tribes still live and where many ancient tribal cultures and customs still exist.

Pakistan consists of several provinces, including Punjab, Sind, North-West Frontier, Baluchistan, and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA).

The city of Islamabad, which is centrally located in the country, was officially named the capital of Pakistan in 1961, and construction began on government buildings in addition to others. Islamabad became the active capital in 1966. In addition to modern government buildings it also features a wide variety of modern hotels, an international airport, and the nearby famous ancient city of Rawalpindi.

In addition to being known for a number of mountains, including K-2, which is the second-highest mountain in world, Pakistan also has several lakes and rivers, including the Indus River, which is 1,800 miles (2,896 kilometers) long. Pakistan also has several deserts, in Punjab and Sind. Pakistan is also home to Taxila, the oldest known university in the world. In the north, leading from China, through Tammu and Kashmir, is a famous ancient silk road.

Pakistan is diverse. There are snowcapped mountains in the north, sunny beaches in the south, and a wide variety of geographically and culturally interesting sites elsewhere.


Demography.

The population of Pakistan is estimated to be 135 million. An estimated 40 million live in urban areas, with the balance in rural areas. In addition to the residents of the major cities of Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, and Peshawar, which is the city at the edge of the Kybher Pass gateway, a number of tribal residents live in valleys. These include Chitral Valley, at an elevation of 3,800 feet (1,158 meters), where the majority of the people are Muslims but that also is home to the Kafir-Kalash (wearers of the black robe), a primitive pagan tribe. In Swat Valley, which was once the cradle of Buddhism, Muslim conquerors fought battles and residents claim to be descendants of soldiers of Alexander the Great. In the Hunza Valley, people are noted Pakistan
for longevity, which they claim is because of diet and way of life. The people of Hunza Valley are Muslims and also are believed to be descendants of soldiers of Alexander the Great. In North-West Frontier Province is Kaghan Valley, which is bounded on the west by Swat Valley, on the north by Gilgit, and on the east by Azad Kashmir. The people of Kaghan Valley are Muslim-Pathans as well as Kohistanis and Gujars. Shardu Valley is the capital of the district of Baltistan and is known as "Little Tibet" because the lifestyle there is similar to that in Tibet itself. The people of each of these valley areas are well known for their tribal cultures, handicrafts, and for fascinating clothing, most of which is woven and handmade there and unique to their particular area.





Linguistic Affiliation.

The official language of Pakistan is Urdu, but most public officials, people, and others in Pakistan also speak English; English is referred to as the informal official language of Pakistan. Urdu was created by combining the languages of early invaders and settlers, including Arabic, Persian, and Turkish. The spoken form of Urdu is the same as that of Hindi but it is written in a different script than Hindi.

While Urdu and English are prevalent throughout Pakistan, a number of other languages are spoken in different valleys and areas. These include the Punjaki, Sindhi, Pushto, Balochi, Brahvi, Saraiki, and Hindko dialects, among others.


Symbolism.

The design of Pakistan's flag was officially adopted by the country's Constituent Assembly in July 1947, it was flown for the first time on their independence day, 14 August l947. The flag was designed by Ali Jinnah, the man acclaimed as the founder of Pakistan. There is a thick white strip on the left side of the flag; the rest of the flag has a dark green background with a white crescent and a five-pointed star centered on it. The white represents peace, and the dark green represents prosperity. The crescent stands for progress, and the star stands for light, guidance, and knowledge. Pakistan also has a national emblem. In the middle of a circled wreath of jasmine flowers is a shield that has four sections, each of which shows a major product of the country from when the country was created. One section shows cotton, another shows wheat, one tea, and one jute. Above the four sections are the crescent and star, as on the national flag. On a scroll beneath the wreath is written in Urdu "Faith, Unity, Discipline."

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation.

For many years India sought independence from Great Britain. During most of those years the Muslim League of India was also striving to establish an independent Islamic nation. The Muslim leader was Ali Jinnah from as early as 1916; in 1940 he began advocating and working for a separate Muslim state. When the British finally agreed to India's independence and withdrew in 1947, Pakistan became a Muslim nation, with Ali Jinnah as its first governor-general. Originally it was divided into two parts. The nation now called Pakistan was then called West Pakistan, and on the opposite side of India, some 1,000 miles (1,609 kilometers) away, was another Muslim area, designated East Pakistan. In 1956 Pakistan became a republic. In 1971 East Pakistan waged a successful war of independence from West Pakistan and became the independent nation of Bangladesh.

While the history of Pakistan as an independent nation dates only to 1947, the history of the territory it encompasses dates back many thousands of years, during the period when the territory was a portion of the Indian subcontinent. In addition, the land is home to the famous Khyber Pass, which is the route that many invaders into India used. These include Mogul invaders and Alexander the Great. Many centuries ago a number of Buddhists also used that northern section as a route, so Pakistan today has many interesting Buddhist sites and historical notes as part of its history. Punjab is also a portion of the country; it was the home of the founder of the Sikh religion, and it continues to play a significant role in Pakistan. Lines of demarcation between India and Pakistan in northern border areas are unclear in places or in dispute, and controversy continues to surround these lines.


National Identity.

The national identity of Pakistan today is that of an Islamic nation; it was created as such. However, because the territory that is now Pakistan has a history that goes back several thousand years, the area has a history that forms part of the present identity of Pakistan. That is one of the reasons why both residents and visitors find the relatively young nation of Pakistan historically interesting and why the national identity includes many sites and stories that are centuries older than the nation itself.


Ethnic Relations.

There are at least five ethnic groups within Pakistan. In general, there are not continuous or frequent problems between the different ethnic groups other than ethnic tensions in Sind, which occur somewhat regularly.

Urbanism, Architecture and the Use of Space

Because of the relative newness (1966) of the capital city of Islamabad, it features modern architecture arrayed under a master plan. In addition to modern capital buildings, Islamabad is also home to the famous Shah Faisal Mosque, which is so large that the prayer hall can accommodate ten thousand persons, while verandas and porticoes can hold more than twenty-four thousand worshipers. It also has a courtyard that has enough space for forty thousand people.

Islamabad also has a sports complex, art galleries, a museum of natural history, and four universities.

Other sites in and near Islamabad include Rawal Lake; the Rose and Jasmine Garden, the Murghzar Mini Zoo and Children's Park; and the Shakarparian Hills, whose terraced garden features views of other hills, Rawal Lake, and the cities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad.

The ancient city of Rawalpindi, on the border of Islamabad, has a history that dates back three thousand years. While many new modern buildings have been added to this city, it has retained much of its historical look and is well known for its bazaars that specialize in handicrafts. Rawalpindi is home to Linquat Memorial Hall with a large auditorium and library; Ayub National Park; and the Rawalpindi Golf Course, which was completed in 1926 but is still in regular use.

Another well-known urban area is Lahore, founded four thousand years ago. Lahore was the cultural center of the Mogul Empire, which glorified it with palaces, gardens, and mosques. It is the second-largest city in Pakistan and the capital of Punjab. Some of its historical sites include the Royal Fort, which was built in 1566 by Akbar the Great, and Wazir Khan's mosque, which was built in 1683 and is still considered one of the most beautiful mosques in all of South Asia.

Another ancient but still famous site in Lahore is the Shalimar Gardens, which were originally laid out in 1642 by Mogul emperor Shah-Jehan. The garden is surrounded by high walls and a watchtower at each of the four corners. The garden is used as the site of regular special state receptions. Lahore is also home to several other well-known mosques, museums, and parks.

A more recent historical site in Lahore is the Minar-e-Pakistan, where a resolution was passed in 1940 demanding creation of a separate homeland for the Muslims. The minar is an estimated 197 feet (60 meters) high.

Another equally well-known urban area is the city of Karachi, which was the first capital of Pakistan. Karachi is in the south of the nation and in addition to being a modern city on the shores of the Arabian Sea, it has a number of interesting sites, including the Masjid-e-Tooba which is said to be the largest single-dome mosque, and several art galleries and bazaars. It has a wide variety of water sports and remains the center of commerce and industry.

There are a number of other urban areas throughout Pakistan, but one of the best known is the city of Peshawar, which is the northernmost major city and is home to the gateway to the Khyber Pass. Peshawar is a city of Pathan tribals who are also Muslims. Alexander the Great and parts of his army stayed in this city for forty days in 327 B.C.E. Balahissar Fort is on both the eastern and western approaches to the city, and it is from near here that one can take a train along the mountain routes of the Khyber Pass. While the city is centuries old, the modern Peshawar is well known for its bazaars and for several colleges and a university.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life.

Because at least 95 percent of the Pakistani population is Muslim, there are two food customs that are followed almost universally. One is that Muslims do not eat pork (therefore beef, chicken, lamb, and fish are the basic foods), and the other is that during the month of Ramadan, fasting is a daily activity.

Spices and curry are an essential part of any Pakistani recipe. The most prevalent spices include chili powder, tumeric, garlic, paprika, black and red pepper, cumin seed, bay leaf, coriander, cardamom, cloves, ginger, cinnamon, saffron, nutmeg, and poppy seeds, among others. Using yogurt to marinate meats is another typical recipe. Because of the use of spices and curry for the main dish, the usual side dish is plain rice. Lentils are another common specialty. The food in the south is more exotic and highly spiced, while that in the north often features plain barbecued meat as the main dish. Usually any meat, fowl, or seafood is curried, and frying is the typical method of cooking. Ghee, which is clarified butter, is another commonly used recipe item and is often used for frying.

Wheat and flour products are considered mainstays of the daily diet, and the use of pickles, chutneys, preserves, and sauces along with curried meats, seafood, vegetables, and lentils and are why Pakistani cuisine has such a unique flavor.

Green tea is the typical drink served at all meals.


Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions.

Fasting is an important part of the Muslim observance of Ramadan, but food does play a role on many other occasions. One such event is the Eid-ul-Azha (Feast of Sacrifice) in the last month of the Muslim calendar, commemorating the occasion when the prophet Abraham was about to sacrifice his son in response to an order from God. Muslims who can afford it are required to sacrifice a sheep, goat, camel, or cow symbolizing Abraham's submission to God. The meat of the sacrificed animal is divided into three equal parts, with the first donated to the poor, the second given to relatives and/or friends, and the third cooked at the home of the person who made the sacrifice. Eating the meat is part of the festival celebration activity.

The important religious festival Shab-I-Barat involves a special type of pudding known as halwa and unleavened bread known as nan being distributed among the poor. The halwa and nan dishes are specially decorated with silver or gold leaves and also are sent to relatives and neighbors.

Food also plays a role in the celebration of the end of the Ramadan fasting period. This starts with a special breakfast of sheer kharma (a sweet dish), which is vermicelli cooked in milk with dried dates, raisins, almonds, and other nuts. In addition, crowds hurry to local bazaars to purchase fruit, meat, and sweets as well as new clothes and jewelry.

Sweets are distributed as part of the celebration of the birth of a new baby in a family, and an animal sacrificial offering is also made—one goat for a girl and two for a boy, with the animal meat distributed among the poor or among friends and relatives. Food also is involved in a ceremony celebrating a child becoming six or seven months old. Sisters and relatives place rice pudding in the infant's mouth using a silver spoon, and a drop of chicken broth is also put in the mouth. After this ceremony the adults then hold an elaborate dinner concluded with a special dessert called kheer.

Basic Economy.

Pakistan is a poor country and its economic outlook is bleak. It relies heavily on foreign loans and grants, and debt obligations take nearly 50 percent of the government's expenditures. The average per capita income per person in Pakistan is estimated at $460 (U.S.). A large number of Pakistanis, estimated at 35 percent, live below the poverty line.

Land Tenure and Property.

An estimated 54.69 million acres (22.14 million hectares) of land are used for agriculture. The major crops are cotton, wheat, rice, and sugarcane. A large amount of land in Pakistan has archaeological sites, such as Moenjo Daro, Harappa, Taxila, Kot Dijji, and Mehr Garh.


Commercial Activities.

A large percentage of the commercial activities include the sale of handicraft items such as the carpets for which Pakistan is well known.

Major Industries. Major industries of Pakistan include textiles, cement, fertilizer, steel, sugar, electric goods, and shipbuilding.

Trade.

Pakistan's major exports include cotton, textile goods, rice, leather items, carpets, sports goods, fruit, and handicrafts. Major imports include industrial equipment, vehicles, iron ore, petroleum, and edible oil. Trade partners include the United States, Hong Kong, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United Arab Emirates.

__________________
GEO to aise k sab tumhara ha,MARO to aisa jaise tmhara kuch bhi nhi.

Maza deti han zindagi ki thokerin unko,jinhen NAAM-E-KHUDA le kar sanbhal janey ki adat ho.

Division of Labor.

Forty-eight percent of workers are in the service sector, 27 percent are in industry, and 25 percent are in agriculture.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes.

There is no caste system in Pakistan. There are high-income, middle-income and a large number of low-income persons throughout the country. Locale makes an important difference in the quality of life; a low-income person in an urban area has more problems than one living in a tribal, mountainous area.


Symbols of Social Stratification.

There have been and continue to be a number of social development shortcomings in Pakistan, but in recognition of them, the government in 1992–1993 initiated the Social Action Program (SAP) to make social development and social services available to all levels of the Pakistanis. Reports show that while some had benefited, the rural people who were meant to benefit mostly did not. Some of the program's expenditures were for elementary education, primary health, welfare, and rural water supply and sanitation. It is believed that many people do not understand the purpose and scope of the SAP and that substantial changes must be made in the program if it is to be successful.

Marriage, Family and Kinship

Marriage.

One form of a Muslim marriage involves a nikah , a formal legal document signed by the bride and groom in front of several witnesses; this establishes that the couple is legally married.

There are other Muslim marriage traditions as well. One includes the mayun or lagan which takes place three or four days before the marriage and starts with the bride retiring to a secluded area of her home. On the day before the marriage there is a menhdi ceremony, when the bride's hands and feet are painted with henna. When the marriage ceremony takes place it is required that at least two witnesses be there, and all the guests offer a short prayer for the success of the marriage. After the ceremony, dried dates are distributed to the guests. Wedding customs vary somewhat among provinces, but the Muslim marriage is seen as uniting both families as well as the couple.

Each tribal group also has certain ceremonies that are an important part of the marriages within that group.

Inheritance.

Women have inheritance rights in Pakistan, so that inheritance benefits can go to women and children after the death of the husband and father.

Kin Groups.

A Muslim marriage is seen as uniting the families of both the bride and groom, so the kin group is expanded after a marriage. In some tribes there can be neither a cross-cultural marriage nor a dual ethnic one, so therefore the kin groups are and basically remain identical ethnically and culturally.

Socialization

Infant Care.

The addition of a new baby to a Muslim family is seen as a great blessing and there are a wide variety of ceremonies that take place both at the birth and throughout the different stages of infancy. To help families with infant care there are a number of child health centers throughout the country.

Child Rearing and Education.

Most Pakistani families consider it the privilege of the grandfather to name the baby. Another tradition is that the first garment for a baby's layette is made from an old shirt that had belonged to the grandfather. The child is usually named within forty days after birth and thus is generally known by a nickname until then. A baby boy's hair is shaved off, with the belief that this will then ensure thick growth throughout life. The shorn hair is weighed and balanced against silver, and that silver is then given to the poor.

In February 1998 the prime minister announced a draft for a new education policy from 1998 to 2010, to increase the number of elementary and secondary schools to meet the projected enrollment of twelve million children, including about six million female children in the primary schools by 2003. The draft also suggested establishment of community-based nonformal schools to fill the school gap and to help minimize the cost of primary schools. The new education policy also proposed training about thirty-six thousand teachers each year from 1998 to 2003 to maintain a pupil-teacher ratio of forty to one, with most new teachers to be females. A reduction in military spending was also proposed so funds could be channeled toward countrywide primary education for all children.

Higher Education.

Higher education is seen as having an important role in preparing an individual for a successful career. There are nearly one thousand colleges and universities located throughout almost the entire country.

Religion

Religious Beliefs.

Pakistan was formed as an Islamic nation, and Islam continues to be the religion of approximately 95 percent of the population. There are also small groups of Buddhists, Christians, Parsis, and Hindus. The Muslim religion was
Houses in Baltit. Pakistan's landscape includes snowcapped mountains and valleys such as this, as well as sunny beaches. founded by the prophet Muhammad in the seventh century, when, according to Islamic belief, he received messages from God and wrote them down in what became the Qur'an, the Islamic book that instructs Muslims on how to conduct their lives.

Rituals and Holy Places.

One of the prevalent rituals for Muslims is the month of Ramadan, during which time they are required to fast from dawn to sunset (this is not required of very young children, the elderly, or pregnant women). Ramadan is also a time when Muslims thank Allah for his blessings during the past year. An additional requirement during Ramadan is that all Muslims must help the less fortunate with both cash and food gifts. The Eid, or day ending Ramadan, starts with an elaborate breakfast; then Muslims go to a mosque or special park for prayer.

An equally important Muslim celebration is Eid-I-Milad-un-Nabi, the birth of the prophet Muhammad, on the twelfth day of Rabi-uh-Awwal, which is the third month of the Muslim calendar. In addition to special gatherings in mosques, where the story of the life and mission of Muhammad is told, large groups of Muslims parade through the streets singing praise to Muhammad. Even private homes are decorated (as are the mosques) in celebration and praise of Muhammad.

Another important Muslim religious festival is Shab-I-Barat, which is held on the fourteenth day of Shaban, the eighth month of the Muslim year. The belief is that on this day the lives and fortunes of mankind are registered in Heaven for the coming year. During Muharram, which is the first month of the Muslim calendar, the martyrdom of Imam Husain, the grandson of Muhammad, is commemorated. For the first nine days of the month the death is recounted, and then on the tenth day, which is the day he was murdered, there are barefoot processions with persons carrying banners relating to the tragedy of his death.

Other religions in Pakistan also have special festivals/rituals and holidays, with Christmas and Easter being the special ones of the 750,000 Pakistani Christians. Christmas coincides with the birthday of the Ali Jinnah, acclaimed as Pakistan's founder, so both Muslims and Christians celebrate on this day.

The main festival of the Buddhist community is Baisakhi Purnima, the day on which Buddha was born; it is the same calendar date when later in his life he is believed to have attained his great wisdom of enlightenment.

Parsi residents of Pakistan celebrate their New Year (Naoroz) on 21 March. Approximately fifty-five hundred Parsis live near Karachi.

Pakistani Hindus also have a number of festivals; the two most special ones are Diwali (Festival of Lights) and Holi (Festival of Colors). The Festival of Lights is held in Lahore at the Shalimar Gardens, which are filled with multicolored lights and where folk music and dances are performed.

A colorful and interesting festival is held in North-West Frontier Province in April, in the Peshawar stadium. Events include the Khattak famous dance of the Pathans and musical concerts; tribal people participate in colorful costumes.

During Eid, tribesmen gather around the shrine of Baba Kharwari in Ziarat Valley, and wrestling and marksmanship contests are held. A large number of people visit it regularly to offer sacrifices in memory of the saint.

The Quaid-I-Azam Residency in Ziarat Valley was Ali Jinnah's residence during his last illness and now houses relics of him and is a highly revered sacred site. It was originally built in l882 by the British and used by the agent to the governor as his summer headquarters.

Takht Bhai is one of the holy places of Buddhism. The Buddhist monastery of Takht Bhai stands 500 feet (152 meters) above the plain on the hill. The Buddhists selected this spot to construct a religious complex where the monks and students could pursue their rituals and studies. The main stupa is surrounded on three sides by chapels in which images of both the Buddha and Buddhisattva were installed.

Makli Hill, near Thatta town is where more than one million graves of kings, queens, saints, scholars, philosophers, and soldiers are located. Gravestones and mausoleums are considered masterpieces in stone carving representing different eras and dynasties.

Death and the Afterlife.

Shab-I-Barat is also celebrated as a remembrance day of deceased family and friends. Special illumination of the mosques takes place and food is distributed among the poor. It is also a time when children participate in fireworks. After distribution of the food the Qur'an is read and prayers are said; then most Muslims visit cemeteries and put flowers and lights on the graves of deceased family and friends.



Bibliography


Alichin, Bridget, and Alichin, Raymond. The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan, 1982.

Cohen, Stephen. Pakistan Army 1998, 1999.

Harrison, Selig. India and Pakistan: The First Fifty Years, 1998.

Hussain, Ishrat. Pakistan: The Economy of an Elitist State, 1999.

Mayhew, Bradley. Lonely Planet Pakistan, 1998.

Mirza, Humayun. From Plassey to Pakistan: The Family History of Iskander Mirza, the First President of Pakistan, 1999.

Mittman, Kevin, and Mittman, Karin. Culture Shock/Pakistan, 1991.

Mumtax, Khawar, and Mitha, Yameema. Pakistan: Tradition and Change, 1996

Shaw, Isobel. Pakistan Handbook, 1996

Sisson, Richard, and Rose, Leo, War and Secession: Pakistan, India and the Creation of Bangladesh, 1991.

Talbot, Ian. Pakistan: A Modern History, 1998.

Williams, Penny; Farooqi, Mukarram; Anis, Rafea; and Khan, Rizwanullah. Social Development in Pakistan, 1999


regards sabahat

__________________
GEO to aise k sab tumhara ha,MARO to aisa jaise tmhara kuch bhi nhi.

Maza deti han zindagi ki thokerin unko,jinhen NAAM-E-KHUDA le kar sanbhal janey ki adat ho.

THE ORIGIN OF RACES IN INDIA

The species known as Ramapithecus was found in the Siwalik foothills of the northwestern Himalayas. This species believed to be the first in the line of hominids lived some 14 million years ago. Researches have found that a species resembling the Australopithecus lived in India some 2 million years ago. Scientists have so far not been able to account for an evolutionary gap of as much as 12 million years since the appearance of Ramapithecus.

The people of India belong to different anthropological stocks. According to Dr. B. S. Guha, the population of India is derived from six main ethnic groups:

(1) Negritos:

The Negritos or the brachycephalic (broad headed) from Africa were the earliest people to inhabit India. They are survived in their original habitat in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Jarewas, Onges, Sentelenese and Great Andamanis tribes are the examples. Studies have indicated that the Onges tribes have been living in the Andamans for the last 60,000 years. Some hill tribes like Irulas, Kodars, Paniyans and Kurumbas are found only in patches among the hills of south India on the mainland.


(2) Pro-Australoids or Austrics:

This group was the next to come to India after the Negritos. They represent a race of people, with wavy hair plentifully distributed over their brown bodies, long heads with low foreheads and prominent eye ridges, noses with low and broad roots, thick jaws, large palates and teeth and small chins. Austrics tribes, which are spread over the whole of India, Myanmar and the islands of South East Asia, are said to "form the bedrock of the people". The Austrics were the main builders of the Indus Valley Civilisation. They cultivated rice and vegetables and made sugar from sugarcane. Their language has survived in the Kol or Munda (Mundari) in Eastern and Central India.

(3) Mongoloids:

These people have features that are common to those of the people of Mongolia, China and Tibet. These tribal groups are located in the Northeastern part of India in states like Assam, Nagaland and Meghalya and also in Ladakh and Sikkim. Generally, they are people of yellow complexion, oblique eyes, high cheekbones, sparse hair and medium height.

(4) Mediterranean or Dravidian:

This group came to India from the Southwest Asia and appear to be people of the same stock as the peoples of Asia Minor and Crete and the pre-Hellenic Aegeans of Greece. They are reputed to have built up the city civilization of the Indus Valley, whose remains have been found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa and other Indus cities. The Dravidians must have spread to the whole of India, supplanting Austrics and Negritos alike. Dravidians comprise all the three sub-types, Paleo-Mediterranean, the true Mediterranean and Oriental Mediterranean. This group constitutes the bulk of the scheduled castes in the North India. This group has a sub-type called Oriental group.

(5) Western Brachycephals:

These include the Alpinoids, Dinaries and Armenois. The Coorgis and Parsis fall into this category.

(6) Nordics:

Nordics or Indo-Aryans are the last immigrants into India. Nordic Aryans were a branch of Indo-Iranians, who had originally left their homes in Central Asia, some 5000 years ago, and had settled in Mesopotamia for some centuries. The Aryans must have come into India between 2000 and 1500 B.C. Their first home in India was western and northern Punjab, from where they spread to the Valley of the Ganga and beyond. These tribes are now mainly found in the Northwest and the Northwest Frontier Province (NWFP). Many of these tribes belong to the "upper castes".

__________________
GEO to aise k sab tumhara ha,MARO to aisa jaise tmhara kuch bhi nhi.

Maza deti han zindagi ki thokerin unko,jinhen NAAM-E-KHUDA le kar sanbhal janey ki adat ho.

Settlement


A place where many people settle or reside together is known as settlement. A village for instance is a settlement. Many rural or agriculture settlements are remains small ones and have not grown into large towns or cities. Towns and cities are large settlements.


Factors which leads to formation settlements

There are a number of factors which leads to formation of settlements and their growth into towns. Among them two are most important;
• One of the town and other is general position.

A settlement may be situated on the mouth of a river or areas of firm ground in the midst of marshy areas or an area which lie on the clutch of floods or an island and so on.
This may be nearness to water supply, the firmness of the ground, the ease with which the settlement cold be defended or the presence or nearness to deposits of coal or the other minerals.


Rural settlement


• Shelter ranks high on the list of human needs. Throughout the world, the coldest regions as well as in the warmest, in the rainiest area as well as deserts, people built dwellings that are the focal points of their daily lives.
• These dwellings that have several functions and protections against cold and other climatic severities.
• In residential quarters people find privacy, a certain degree of comfort.
• A house reveals much about a region and culture
• In layout and function of houses, we get an impression of social value and economic needs.

The material use in the construction of dwellings reflect local availability
And purpose.
• In cold area of northern Europe, the long cabin developed with thick walls and pitched roof withstand cold and heavy snowfalls.
• In tropical areas, cold weather is not a problem and we will find leaves, branches and matting used in the construction of dwellings.
• In the US Midwest, for example, individual farmhouse lies quite far apart in what we call a dispersal settlement pattern.

When houses are grouped together in tiny clusters we call villages. Their spatial arrangement has also enormous to identify the prevailing culture just by looking at the ground plan of village.

In such different regions as Eastern Europe, western Nigeria, and northern Spain, the houses of older villages are not regularly arranged but are closely clustered together.


Changing Residential Traditions

Although cultural traditions promote continuity and performance in building types and styles, time does bring change, in certain parts of the world-areas.

Four Groups of Dwelling

1. Unchanged traditional.
2. Modified traditional.
3. Modernized traditional.
4. Modern


Unchanged-Traditional Dwelling

Unchanged traditional dwelling are those in which layout, construction and appearance have not been significantly altered by extreme influences.
• Such as the domestic architecture that gives character to distinctive cultural land in China and other places immune to foreign influences.
• These range from wood formed , mat-walled , thatch-roofed to rough stone structure in native American Ares, also include are mud-walled houses in china, log cabins in northern Europe and cloths tent in North Africa.

Modified Traditional-Dwelling

Modified traditional dwelling refer to dwelling for which change has come in the form of new building materials or with the addition of elements that do not fundamentally alter their original structure or layout.

Modifications

• The use of iron panels as a roof material has diffused too many areas of the world and has affecting housing everywhere.
• The shuttered wall opening for the escape of the smoke and air circulation
• The raised floor without changing basic structure.
• Walls made of sun-dried bricks
While these did not materially change the appearance of traditional dwellings, they did result in better protection and greater durability



Modernized-Traditional Dwellings

In this case modernized takes place over tradition. Not only material used in building is changed but also the floor plain and general layout as well.

• Like in the former European colonies, the specialized facilities concept has altered the old combined pattern giving rise to a blend of modern and traditional building material and style.


Modern Dwellings

This category of settlement absorbed all the concept of practicality, comfort, protection, luxury and no doubt quite different from traditional pattern in many ways.
This pattern is well-equipped with plumbing and electrical system, temperature and humidity control mechanism, kitchen and bathroom facilities and other automated apparatus.
Landscape of Rural Settlement Across the World

Rural dwellings could be studied from the viewpoint of their physical structure, degree of their complexity and the materials from they are constructed


(a) Primary Wood

Houses made principally of wood still shoe some regional association with the world distribution of forest. The walls may be constructed of wooden planks and boards. The roof normally made of wood with protective layer of trapper or tiles.
• In South Africa wood is primary material for houses.
• Eurasia that extend from central Scandinavia and Eastern Europe trough Russia to pacific coast including Korea and Japan. Are some examples.

(b) Bricks

Where wood is not so readily available, houses are likely to be built of bricks. Arid regions such dwellings are adequate protection against heat and cold. However in rainy days this arrangement proves house of card and play havoc with rural life. Sun-dried bricks are widely used as building material.
• It is main component of traditional dwellings not only in the middle east and the Arab culture realm generally but also much of middle and south America some areas of Africa and northern India and Pakistan.
• It is also prevalent in china.
• The fired brick has become a major element of modern construction of the world.


(c) Natural Stone

Houses are also built of natural stone, house builders pile up rough stones without mortar, fill the remaining opening with mud and fashion a thatched roof.
• Traditional European homes are example of natural stone

(d)Wattle

These dwellings are built of combination of wood (poles and stick)
• Regions; Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Philippines, south of china and east India,) some parts of Africa and South America.

(d) grass and Bush

The equatorial rainforest areas and subtropical drier zones lay the low latitude regions where grass and brush form the principle building material.

Village characteristics

Rural settlement, in any case tends to be comparatively small. People who live in them either form the surrounding land or provide services to those who do the forming, thus rural settlement has close contact with the farmland. The livelihood of rural inhabitant directly, or indirectly on the cultivation of nearly embarked the forming.
The villages display an enormous variety of sizes and spatial firms. Their unifying quality of their agricultural organization, villages are likely to include a place of worship, a school, a small clinic, and public gathering place.




Urban places


The distinction between hamlets and towns, villages and cities is also not easy to define. The problem of definition arises because town and cities and cities may differ from rural centers in so many ways.
Urban settlement not only bigger and densely populated but also has a larger range of industrial, administrative and government functions and responsibilities as well.

• Rapid urban growth us a dominant factor of developed economies.
• Urban growth and urbanization are supplementary and complementary with each other.

History of urbanization

• The concept of urbanization is spread from tigris-euphrate’s basin.
By the middle of third millennium (600to500bp)
• About 2500 years ago urbanization flourishing in the several other parts o f the world, was begun in Asia and Meso America.

• With the Muslim influence across the globe from 8th to 14th, century AD. Cities like ghazni Baghdad, Cairo, Cordova, shone brilliant stars on the cultural horizon of the world.

• In West Africa, were flourishing along with Sothern margin of Sahara.

• The roman-European urban tradition were weakened the Muslim invasion awakened Europe from deep slumber and brought into action.


Present pattern of world urbanization

The present map of the world moving upward rapidly towards the urbanization. The remarkable developed countries taking 70% of population of urbanized.
• Today Russia’s population is 75% urbanized. The progress of urbanization in South America is also obvious.
• The Middle East and the urban peninsula are quite urbanized. Urbanization in south Asia is low.
• Southeast Asia has a distinction of incorporating the only country in the world that is Singapore.

Internal structure of towns


Each city is an individual place with its own site and situation, its own history of development and change and its own activities.
These express them slaves of the physical structure of town, comprising road and street pattern, location as well as nature of different kind of facilities: retail stores, whole sell warehouses, industrial plants, offices, residence, railroads, airports, and parks.

To generalize about these common elements, we use three well known theories.

• The concentric ring model
• Central board district
• Wholesale, light manufacturing..
• Low-class residential.
• Middle-class residential.
• High-class residential.

• Sector model

• CBD
• Wholesale, light manufacturing.
• Low-class residential.
• Middle-class residential.
• High-class residential.
• Heavy manufacturing.
• Outlaying business.
• Residential suburb.
• Industrial suburb.
• Commuter’s zone.


Multiple Nuclei model

• CBD
• Wholesale, light manufacturing.
• High-class residential.
• Middle-class residential.
• Low-class residential.
• Commuter’s zone........................

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LOVE all, TRUST a few, do WRONG to none......

Salam to all.
friends all of you have requested me several time to post notes of human geo. i was searching for authentic material related to human geography and finally i succeeded. i found complete book of deblij in presentation form with some interesting excercises. those members who don`t have this book can benefit alot from these presentations.

so friends here you go....

1: Human Geography Introduction

2:Population

3:Migration

4:Local Culture, Popular Culture, and Cultural Landscapes

5:Local Culture, Popular Culture, and Cultural Landscapes

6:Language

7:Religion

to be continued...................

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GEO to aise k sab tumhara ha,MARO to aisa jaise tmhara kuch bhi nhi.

Maza deti han zindagi ki thokerin unko,jinhen NAAM-E-KHUDA le kar sanbhal janey ki adat ho.

@Sister Sabahat
Please share the balance chapter of the book as earliest possible

Dear Seniors
i want to get data related cyclones and tornado's. how they are form?

@syedasabahat....ma'm may i have ur id plz???need to talk to u

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