Journalism Topics
 

[B][U]Yellow Journalism[/U][/B]

Yellow journalism, in short, is biased opinion masquerading as objective fact. Moreover, the practice of yellow journalism involved sensationalism, distorted stories, and misleading images for the sole purpose of boosting newspaper sales and exciting public opinion. It was particularly indicative of two papers founded and popularized in the late 19th century- The New York World, run by Joseph Pulitzer and The New York Journal, run by William Randolph Hearst.
It all started, some historians believe, with the onset of the rapid industrialization that was happening all around the world.

The Industrial Revolution eventually affected the newspaper industry, allowing newspapers access to machines that could easily print thousands of papers in a single night. This is believed to have brought into play one of the most important characteristics of yellow journalism - the endless drive for circulation. And unfortunately, the publisher's greed was very often put before ethics.

Although the actual practice of what would later become known as yellow journalism came into being during a more extended time period (between 1880-1890), the term was first coined based on a series of occurrences in and following the year of 1895. This was the year in which Hearst purchased the New York Journal, quickly becoming a key rival of Pulitzer's. The term was derived, through a series of peculiar circumstances, from a cartoon by the famous 19th century cartoonist, Robert Outcault called "The Yellow Kid". The cartoon was first published in The World, until Hearst hired him away to produce the strip in his newspaper. Pulitzer then hired another artist to produce the same strip in his newspaper.

This comic strip happened to use a new special, non-smear yellow ink, and because of the significance of the comic strip, the term "yellow journalism" was coined by critics.

Sadly though, this period of sensationalist news delivery (where the so-called yellow press routinely outsold the more honest, truthful, unbiased newspapers) does stand out as a particularly dark era in journalistic history. The demand of the United States people for absolutely free press allowed such aforementioned newspapers, which often appealed to the shorter attention spans and interests of the lower class, to print whatever they so desired.

This means that they could easily steal a headline and story directly from another paper, or simply fabricate a story to fit their particular agenda.
One of the more disturbing features involved with the former practice of yellow journalism, and the period in which it was most active in is that there is no definite line between this period of yellow journalism and the period afterwards.

There only exists evidence that such practices were frowned upon by the general public - by 1910, circulation had dropped off very rapidly for such papers. But regardless, does this mean that yellow journalism simply faded away, never to return? Or did it absorb itself into the very heart of our newspapers, where it will remain forever? One thing is for certain - after the late 1800s, newspapers changed drastically, and still show no sign of changing back.

The modernly present newspaper appearances of catchy headlines, humorous comic strips, special interest sections, intrusive investigative reporting, et cetera serve as a constant reminder that one must always stay skeptical when examining our news sources.

What is the remedy to yellow journalism? Simply double- and triple-checking one's sources and reading between the lines. If one disregards the obvious marketing that is used to hook readers, newspapers may actually prove to be reliable sources of information.

[B][U]Communication in the e-world - Issues[/U][/B]

The famous remark of Marshall McLuhan, the linguist "The Media is the Message" could be called the foundation for any study on mass communication. But today, the media is no longer the message i.e. content. Mass communication media is becoming diverse, and so is the content. People�s access to the media has increased manifold and so has the ability to create a new content with each access.

"Mass communication" has started to shift towards "one-to-one communication," which means that communication is programmed to meet the demands of the individual. The Internet is one such essential tool for �personalized� mass communication. This chapter focuses on the various phases of the ongoing "paradigm shift," induced by the changes in the technological society.

[B]EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES: THEIR HISTORY
[/B]
The Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW)

Some of the best ideas are born in the worst of times it is said. And so it was that the seeds of the Internet were sown in the ashes of World War II. After perpetuating the nuclear holocaust in Japan in 1945, the US military research concentrated on ways and means to survive a similar holocaust on themselves.

In the 1960s, the problem of communicating with each other in the aftermath of a nuclear attack was taken up by America�s foremost military think-tank - the Rand Corporation�s Paul Baran. Years of agonizing research led to the creation of the first Net called the ARPANET (ARPA stood for Advanced Research Projects Agency) - connecting 4 American research organizations: Stanford Research Institute, the University of Utah, and the University of California in Los Angeles as well as Santa Barbara.

In 1971, Robert Kahn of the BBC made a public demonstration of the uses of the Net. By this time the ARPANET had grown and now connected 23 universities and government research centers around the US. E-mail was introduced and soon became ARPANET�s most used facility. In 1972, the Inter Networking Working Group was set up with Vinton Cerf as its first chairman. He was later to be known as the father of the Internet. Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf developed what eventually became the Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). The first microprocessor based �user friendly� personal computer (PC) was introduced in 1974. In 1975, ARPANET�s administration was transferred to the US Department of Defense (DOD). In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee had created the World Wide Web (WWW) that would help even remote computers and desktops to access the Net.

It didn�t take long for the Web to find and enjoy the effects of a world wide audience. The democratic nature of the web works because its point-and-click accessibility, as well as the absence of technical jargon at most sites, has allowed the computer novices and experts alike to explore and create the Web at their own pace and on their own terms.

A leading Indian magazine enlists 10 reasons for being on the Internet:

Communicating with people
Finding people with common issues
Finding information
Exchanging Information and Documents
Finding Support Groups
Place to speak freely
Education
Fun and Entertainment
More than just fun and games

The recent global debate over the content regulation of the Internet was obviously the outcome of the number of instances that a lack of regulation has led to. Policing the Internet continues to be a controversial issue in the United States and many other countries because of a potential infringement on free speech. It is also unclear how such laws might be enforced in the free-for-all atmosphere of the Internet.

Internet sites differ in size according to whether it is a personal set of postings by an individual or if it is to be used as an interactive reporting and reference tool for global events. Though there has been a continuous wave of technological breakthroughs in the creative content presentation, the potential for combining graphics, text, video and sound with the various WWW protocols is still being tapped.

There is a trend towards building �information communities�. With the ability to keep track of the number of users, interact with people via chat groups and email, the global community has made a paradigm shift from being passive readers to becoming interactive audiences. This chapter will compare the World Wide Web to other mass media such as newspaper and television and discuss the issues behind the �interactive� communication media and its pros and cons.

Andrew L. Fry (Vice President, Director of Projects at Free Range Media, Inc) in his abstract titled �Publishing in the New Mass Medium: Creating Content on the Internet� talks about how Mathew Gray, an MIT student, has attempted to estimate size and growth of the Web using the World Wide Web Wanderer, an Internet automation, and has reported the following results as of early 1994: "Wow, the Web is BIG". His was an attempt to quantify file transfer as a function of traffic, web server sites and of course, number of Internet users. All three are important in defining the Internet as a mass medium. The first, traffic, is a measure of interaction; the second, number of server sites, as a measure of content and the third, number of users, representing audience.

One figure commonly used to estimate the Internet user base is an audience of 20,000,000 to 30,000,000 people with a growth rate of 10% to 20% per month. The figure is derived in formulaic fashion and is the subject of debate, as is demonstrated in the copyrighted article entitled "How Big is the Internet", by Vanderbilt professors Donna L. Hoffman and Thomas P. Novak. This article can be read on-line on [url=http://www.wired.com]Wired.com[/url]. The testimony before the US House of Representatives, Committee on Science, Space and Technology on March 23, 1993 by Vinton Cerf. estimates 100 million users in the foreseeable future. With evident phenomenal growth, it appears that everyone is jumping on to the bandwidth-wagon.

The Internet possesses the unique ability to combine protocols supported by the World Wide Web project to deliver information, communication and interactivity. However the Internet is only the delivery system, just as broadcast is the delivery system for television and radio, and print is the platform for newspapers and magazines. The Internet�s USP is its specificity of types of content available at the click of a button.

Watching television is a cultural phenomenon which can only occur when a large enough proportion of the available audience shares in the viewing of a particular program. But the fund of information pouring into the Web is diluting the core audience.

Broadcast programmes provide information and entertainment to an audience which is referred to as "viewership" or "listenership" and has limited interaction with content providers. It is aided by subscriptions and advertisements. So is the case of publications, where the audience is referred to as readership which interacts with content providers through letters to the editors etc.

Some web sites are delivering topical editorial content through sponsorship e.g HotWIRED, (the first web site to publish materials based on the virtues of the medium that delivers it) produced by WIRED magazine. The audience interacts directly and in real time with the content and content providers. The number of hits that the site has received can be tallied and information flow can be measured. As far as using the Internet as a marketing tool goes, innumerable examples can be cited, e.g. Macmillan Publishing has created an independent business unit which will operate as a virtual bookstore.

Competition for securing audience is gets more fierce. This bodes well for the medium because in order to attract more people to a site, the quality of the information, interaction and user experience will continue to climb as sites compete for viewers.

In order to develop successful, topical programs on the net, Andrew Fry recommends that the site must do three things. First, it must develop a recognizable look and feel (branding). Second, it must maintain a high standard for delivering hard to get or consistently entertaining material (quality of content). And third, it must build, measure, and maintain a community of users i.e. "the audience" or "information community".

The quality and content of the sites on the Web are rated by companies such as Nielson. Ratings for a particular web site will not only consist of number of hits. Number of emails generated from the site, volume of postings at registered and related news groups and of course demographic information generated via questionnaires AND comments.

In a paper based on an in-depth Mosaic Group study of the state of the Internet in China and India ([url=http://som.csudh.edu/fac/lpress/articles/chind.htm]Folks,[/url]), comparison between the Internets in the two countries are based on six dimensions: pervasiveness (users, hosts), geographic dispersion(top-tier political divisions with POPs, number of cities with POPs), sectoral absorption (commercial, education, government, health), connectivity infrastructure (domestic backbone, high-speed access, exchanges, international bandwidth) organizational infrastructure (telecommunication competition, backbone competition, access provider competition, coordinating organizations) and sophistication of use. Factors such as illiteracy, language, government action and programs that encourage Internet penetration such as free-market purchase of PCs India etc are taken into account.

Marshall McLuhan (1960) wrote, "The advent of a new medium often reveals the lineaments and assumptions, as it were, of an old medium" The Internet is a multifaceted mass medium, that is, it contains many different configurations of communication. Its varied forms show the connection between interpersonal and mass communication that has been an object of study since the two-step flow associated the two (Lazarsfeld, Berelson, & Gaudet, 1944). Chaffee and Mutz (1988) have called for an exploration of this relationship that begins "with a theory that spells out what effects are of interest, and what aspects of communication might produce them"
The Internet plays with the source-message-receiver features of the traditional mass communication model. Internet communication takes many forms, from World Wide Web pages operated by major news organizations to Usenet groups discussing folk music to E-mail messages among colleagues and friends. Sources of the messages can range from one person in E-mail communication, to a social group in a Listserv or Usenet group, to a group of professional journalists in a World Wide Web page.

The messages themselves can be traditional journalistic news stories created by a reporter and editor, stories created over a long period of time by many people, or simply conversations, such as in an Internet Relay Chat group. The receivers, or audiences, of these messages can also number from one to potentially millions, and may or may not move fluidly from their role as audience members to producers of messages.

The various differences between the tradition communication media and the Internet as the modern medium of communication can be given as below:

Traditional Media
Print media
newspapers, books, magazines, pamphlets.
Many-to-many communcation, effortful, slow, expensive
Broadcast
television, radio
One-to-many, effortful, very expensive
Common carriers
Telephone, postal service
One-to-one, cheap, fast/slow, carriers provide communication medium not content
Internet Communication
Differences to traditional media:
Many-to-many communication ,Fast, cheap, interactive, global scale
Universal Access
Anonymity
Communication without linking personal, physical information.
Reproducibility
Communications (email, newsgroup postings) can be stored and perfectly reproduced.
Implications for notions of property and personal privacy:
Traditional notion of property associated with idea of control. Notion challenged by internet communication.
Traditional notion of privacy associated with short lifetime of our actions in restricted physical space.
Both notions challenged by internet

In their article entitles �The Internet as Mass Medium�, Merrill Morris and Christine Ogan of the Indiana University talk about the various communication theories as applicable to the e-media. In approaching the study of the Internet as a mass medium, the following established concepts seem to be useful starting points. Some of these have originated in the study of interpersonal or small group communication; others have been used to examine mass media. Some relate to the nature of the medium, while others focus on the audience for the medium.


[B][U]Critical mass
[/U][/B]
This conceptual framework has been adopted from economists, physicists, and sociologists by organizational communication and diffusion of innovation scholars to better understand the size of the audience needed for a new technology to be considered successful and the nature of collective action as applied to electronic media use (Markus, 1991; Oliver et al., 1985). For any medium to be considered a mass medium, and therefore economically viable to advertisers, a critical mass of adopters must be achieved. Interactive media only become useful as more and more people adopt, or as Rogers (1986) states, "the usefulness of a new communication system increases for all adopters with each additional adopter" (p. 120). Initially, the critical mass notion works against adoption, since it takes a number of other users to be seen as advantageous to adopt.

For example, the telephone or an E-mail system was not particularly useful to the first adopters because most people were unable to receive their messages or converse with them. Valente (1995) notes that the critical mass is achieved when about 10 to 20 percent of the population has adopted the innovation. When this level has been reached, the innovation can be spread to the rest of the social system. Adoption of computers in U.S. households has well surpassed this figure, but the modem connections needed for Internet connection lag somewhat behind.

Because a collection of communication services-electronic bulletin boards, Usenet groups, E-mail, Internet Relay Chats, home pages, gophers, and so forth-comprise the Internet, the concept of critical mass on the Internet could be looked upon as a variable, rather than a fixed percentage of adopters. Fewer people are required for sustaining an Internet Relay Chat conference or a Multi-User Dungeon than may be required for an electronic bulletin board or another type of discussion group. As already pointed out, a relatively large number of E-mail users are required for any two people to engage in conversation, yet only those two people constitute the critical mass for any given conversation. For a bulletin board to be viable, its content must have depth and variety.

If the audience who also serve as the source of information for the BBS is too small, the bulletin board cannot survive for lack of content. A much larger critical mass will be needed for such a group to maintain itself-perhaps as many as 100 or more. The discretionary data base, as defined by Connolly and Thorn (1991) is a "shared pool of data to which several participants may, if they choose, separately contribute information" (p. 221). If no one contributes, the data base cannot exist. It requires a critical mass of participants to carry the free riders in the system, thus supplying this public good to all members, participants, or free riders.

Though applied to organizations, this refinement of the critical mass theory is a useful way of thinking about Listserv, electronic bulletin boards, Usenet groups, and other Internet services, where participants must hold up their end of the process through written contributions.

Each of these specific Internet services can be viewed as we do specific television stations, small town newspapers, or special interest magazines. None of these may reach a strictly mass audience, but in conjunction with all the other stations, newspapers, and magazines distributed in the country, they constitute mass media categories. So the Internet itself would be considered the mass medium, while the individual sites and services are the components of which this medium is comprised.

[B][U]Interactivity
[/U][/B]
This concept has been assumed to be a natural attribute of interpersonal communication, but, as explicated by Rafaeli (1988), it is more recently applied to all new media, from two-way cable to the Internet. From Rafaeli's perspective, the most useful basis of inquiry for interactivity would be one grounded in responsiveness. Rafaeli's definition of interactivity "recognizes three pertinent levels: two-way (noninteractive) communication, reactive (or quasi-interactive) communication, and fully interactive communication" (1988, p. 119). Anyone working to conceptualize Internet communication would do well to draw on this variable and follow Rafaeli's lead when he notes that the value of a focus on interactivity is that the concept cuts across the mass versus interpersonal distinctions usually made in the fields of inquiry. It is also helpful to consider interactivity to be variable in nature, increasing or decreasing with the particular Internet service in question.

[B][U]Uses and Gratifications
[/U][/B]
Though research of mass media use from a uses-and-gratifications perspective has not been prevalent in the communication literature in recent years, it may help provide a useful framework from which to begin the work on Internet communication. Both Walther (1992b) and Rafaeli (1986) concur in this conclusion. The logic of the uses-and-gratifications approach, based in functional analysis, is derived from "

(1) the social and psychological origins of
(2) needs, which generate
(3) expectations of
(4) the mass media and other sources, which lead to
(5) differential patterns of media exposure (or engagement in other activities), resulting in
(6) other consequences, perhaps mostly unintended ones" (Blumler and Katz, 1974).

Rosengren (1974) modified the original approach in one way by noting that the "needs" in the original model had to be perceived as problems and some potential solution to those problems needed to be perceived by the audience. Rafaeli (1986) regards the move away from effects research to a uses-and-gratifications approach as essential to the study of electronic bulletin boards (one aspect of the Internet medium). He is predisposed to examine electronic bulletin boards in the context of play or Ludenic theory, an extension of the uses-and-gratifications approach, which is clearly a purpose that drives much of Internet use by a wide spectrum of the population. Rafaeli summarizes the importance of this paradigm for electronic communication by noting uses-and-gratifications' comprehensive nature in a media environment where computers have not only home and business applications, but also work and play functions.

Additionally, the uses-and-gratifications approach presupposes a degree of audience activity, whether instrumental or ritualized. The concept of audience activity should be included in the study of Internet communication, and it already has been incorporated in one examination of the Cleveland Freenet (Swift, 1989).


[B]Social presence and media richness theory[/B]

These approaches have been applied to CMC use by organizational communication researchers to account for interpersonal effects. But social presence theory stems from an attempt to determine the differential properties of various communication media, including mass media, in the degree of social cues inherent in the technology. In general, CMC, with its lack of visual and other nonverbal cues, is said to be extremely low in social presence in comparison to face-to-face communication (Walther, 1992a).

Media richness theory differentiates between lean and rich media by the bandwidth or number of cue systems within each medium. This approach (Walther, 1992a) suggests that because CMC is a lean channel, it is useful for simple or unequivocal messages, and also that it is more efficient "because shadow functions and coordinated interaction efforts are unnecessary. For receivers to understand clearly more equivocal information, information that is ambiguous, emphatic, or emotional, however, a richer medium should be used" (p. 57).

Unfortunately, much of the research on media richness and social presence has been one-shot experiments or field studies. Given the ambiguous results of such studies in business and education (Dennis & Gallupe, 1993), it can be expected that over a longer time period, people who communicate on Usenets and bulletin boards will restore some of those social cues and thus make the medium richer than its technological parameters would lead us to expect. As Walther (1992a) argues: "It appears that the conclusion that CMC is less socioemotional or personal than face-to-face communication is based on incomplete measurement of the latter form, and it may not be true whatsoever, even in restricted laboratory settings" (p. 63). Further, he notes that though researchers recognize that nonverbal social context cues convey formality and status inequality, "they have reached their conclusion about CMC/face-to-face differences without actually observing the very non-verbal cues through which these effects are most likely to be performed" (p. 63).

Clearly, there is room for more work on the social presence and media richness of Internet communication. It could turn out that the Internet contains a very high degree of media richness relative to other mass media, to which it has insufficiently been compared and studied. Ideas about social presence also tend to disguise the subtle kinds of social control that goes on the Net through language, such as flaming.


[B]Network Approaches[/B]

Grant (1993) has suggested that researchers approach new communication technologies through network analysis, to better address the issues of social influence and critical mass. Conceptualizing Internet communities as networks might be a very useful approach. As discussed earlier, old concepts of senders and receivers are inappropriate to the study of the Internet. Studying the network of users of any given Internet service can incorporate the concept of interactivity and the interchangeability of message producers and receivers. The computer allows a more efficient analysis of network communication, but researchers will need to address the ethical issues related to studying people's communication without their permission.

These are just a few of the core concepts and theoretical frameworks that should be applied to a mass communication perspective on Internet communication. Reconceptualizing the Internet from this perspective will allow researchers both to continue to use the structures of traditional media studies and to develop new ways of thinking about those structures. It is, finally, a question of taxonomy. Thomas Kuhn (1974) has noted the ways in which similarity and resemblance are important in creating scientific paradigms. As Kuhn points out, scientists facing something new "can often agree on the particular symbolic expression appropriate to it, even though none of them has seen that particular expression before" (p. 466). The problem becomes a taxonomic one: how to categorize, or, more importantly, how to avoid categorizing in a rigid, structured way so that researchers may see the slippery nature of ideas such as mass media, audiences, and communication itself.

[B][U]Broadcast journalism[/U][/B]

The world a few years ago was a testing laboratory for innovative television technology that has now become a versatile tool for the leapfrogging communication scenario. Changes such as Studio film, videotape colour, quicker editing, miniaturization of bulky electronic gears, orbiting communications satellite providing visual and sound links and the continuous refinement of technology to name a few, have revolutionized the world of broadcast journalism.

Experimental television broadcasting started in the 1920s in the USA in a small way using a mechanical scanning disc which could only scan a picture slowly. All this changed with the invention of the iconoskinescope (picture tube), the electronic camera and television home receivers. By the 1930s NBC and BBC had set up their TV stations in New York and London respectively. The World war hampered any further development in television broadcasting.

The 1960s was the Age of Satellite Communications. Early Bird, the first communication satellite was launched and two big international satellite systems, Intelsat and Intersputnik began operating leading to phenomenal progress. In the 1970s, more sophisticated transmission techniques using optical fibre cables and computer technology were introduced. A computer controlled network to carry two-way video information to and from households was designed in Japan. Further developments included the audio-visual cassette, videotape recorder, closed circuit TV, cable and pay television and Direct Broadcasting Systems.

[B] Advantages of Television Media[/B]

Television as distinguished from the press has a natural attribute: the immense personal and graphic impact on its viewers, which is in a sense more "communicative", interactive and interpersonal than the printed word. Television "transports" the audience to the scene of the event and leads them to experience emotion and involvement with the event.

The main difference between press and television is the element of time. The newsperson is dependent on limited time instead of stretchable space on a newspaper, and he/she also has to take into account the audience's attention span. He/she has to select news items that will interest people and broadcast it to them within the timeframe allowed.

[B] On-the-scene Reporting[/B]

Recent trends have shown an increased use of first-hand, on-the-spot broadcasting/reporting of a story directly from the scene of news. Efficient technology has increased the speed of such coverage. A highly organized team geared to the day-to-day demands of news broadcasting is very much an essential part today due to increased competitiveness and the irrefutable need for keeping up the quality of news delivery to a very media savvy audience.

Judgments and critical evaluations of the news items to be broadcast begin with the top news executives of the organization. They have a group of editors or producers of the program reporting to them, who in turn command a host of reporters, writers, cameramen, film editors and technicians. Hours before the program is to be aired, the editor assigns work to his subordinates, anticipates future developments and reserves sufficient flexibility to cope with news occurring during and before airing of the program.

Network correspondents in particular areas or reporters affiliated to local stations prepare newsworthy items and mount them for transmission and recording ahead of program time or live transmission. Stories from far away areas are filmed and dispatched by air transportation to points within reach for feeding into the show.

After all the news has been gathered and the late-breaking additions are made, the news must be edited to fit the air time. Stories to be read out by newscasters must be combined with silent and sound film, video and audio tapes, still photographs, amps and other audio-visual "accessories". The final script with the audio-visual elements is called the "master" which should be crisp, effective and professional.

The shape of any news show is determined not only by the choice of what is news, but also by the emphasis given to different stories and the way it is presented. The way a story is written creates an impact on the listener.

Many have raised the question as to the role of television other than its entertainment function: is it not to dissent, persuade, to chronicle events of the day as judgments? A pertinent question here is whether the broadcasting people have the wisdom to tell the nation what to do about matters of vital importance. If one point of view is emphasised, is there not a responsibility to present the other side? Many well-known media persons have commented on this Former NBC President Kitner says, "It is not our job to take sides. We should present the story objectively and let the public decide for themselves." This brings in the need for objectivity. But again one person's objectivity may be another person's story with a slant and vice-versa. This is one area which is open to debate.

[B] Investigative Reporting[/B]

William Wood in his book "Electronic Journalism" says that the forms of journalism calculated to stir things up are not complete without investigative reporting, sometimes called enterprise reporting, which is digging for unknown facts that result in an expose.

[B] Talk Programs and Depth Interviews[/B]

Special documentaries produced over long periods are called "talk" programs and are more in depth than normal news stories. Depth interviews, panels of experts, debates between political candidates are other ways in which television journalism garners audience pulling power. Talk programs are cheaper and easier to produce than documentaries.

[B][U][U]Uses and Effects of mass media[/U][/U][/B]


Chapter 2 focused on the various theories of communication and the effects that the tools of media have on the audiences. This chapter will focus on the several types of communication classified on the basis of the social group in which it takes place and upon the technical tools used for its facilitation. The various types are:

Intrapersonal [B]Communication
[/B]
Intrapersonal communication is one-way communication. Individual contemplation, internal reflection, prayers, etc. are types of intrapersonal communication. This type can also be termed as a form of internal persuasion. There are two types of messages, nonverbal and verbal. Examples of nonverbal communication are facial expressions, posture, gestures, tone of voice, touching, spacing and systematic use of time. Verbal communication can be divided into three disciplines; syntactics, semantics, and pragmatics.

In the persuasion context, one person is attempting to induce change in the belief, attitude, or behavior in one other person. For example: Jane persuading her sister Sarah to lend her pearls for Jane’s school party.
In the persuasion context, there are various theories that explain internal communication.

[B]Balance Theory[/B]

This theory advocated by Fritz Heider and Theodore Newcomb in 1946 states that when tensions arise between or inside people, they attempt to reduce these tensions through self-persuasion or trying to persuade others. Balance theory proposes that there are three ways in which a person can feel balance. First the source and receiver can both dislike as well as like each other, so they experience comfort and balance. Second, the source and receiver can have a positive attitude toward an object or idea and display positive feelings toward one another, therefore experiencing comfort and balance. Third, the source and the receiver can disagree about an idea or object and also dislike each other, therefore experiencing comfort because they know that they disagree about the values of certain objects or ideas.

[B]Example:[/B]

Mary likes to do things in a planned, orderly manner and Joe does not like orderliness in everything. Yet Mary likes Adam, and values their relationship therefore this system is now in imbalance. If Mary would change her attitude about orderliness in everything, this system would be in balance.

[B]Cognitive Dissonance Theory[/B]

This theory propagated by Leon Festinger in 1962 says that human beings often have conflicting beliefs with actions they take, or other beliefs they have. This dissonance creates a tension and tension reduction is automatically sought by changing our evaluations by some degree. Cognitive Dissonance is when you have two good choices and you make your decision then you find yourself unsure or in doubt about the choice you made. The theory of Cognitive Dissonance implies that when there is tension we change a belief or an action. Many times selective exposure is used which prevents dissonance. This theory also implies that we experience more dissonance when the issue is more important, when we put off a decision and the decision is permanent.

[B]Example:[/B]

When marketers want to persuade their audience to buy a product they must convince them that this is a good action and if their beliefs do not match this action, they must persuade them to change their beliefs. For instance if a health drink is introduced in the market, and some consumers feel that it is really not essential that they switch over to the new product from their usual cereal, the advertisers will have to focus on the fact the health drink contains health benefits such as cholesterol fighting, fat reducing ingredients that their usual cereal lacks.

[B]Information Manipulation Theory (IMT)[/B]

Theorist Steve A. McCornack propounded this theory in 1992. This states that a speaker purposefully and covertly violates one of the conversational maxims of quantity, quality, relation and manner with the intention of deceiving his/her listener.

[B]Example:[/B]

X has an important school project due Wednesday. His professor does not accept late papers. Monday night he went to the soccer match and didn't start on the paper. Tuesday night he browsed the net for information related to the project and managed to almost finish the project. Wednesday morning, X overslept and arrived only after class was over. He goes to see his professor immediately after. How will he answer his professor on why he wasn't in class to turn in his paper?

Quantity: "I am sorry professor. I overslept."
Quality: "Our power got cut and my alarm didn't go off."
Relation: "I've had a really bad week. I had a fight with my roommate, I forgot to pay the electricity bill, the electricity was turned off and my boss has threatened to fire me if I’m late again."
Manner: "I badly need to score well in this project. My paper was already finished, I just overslept".

The Inoculation Theory (1961) by William McGuire states that inoculation is used to describe the attribution of greater resistance to individuals or the process of supplying information to receivers before the communication process takes place in the hope that the information would make the receiver more resistant. This theory stresses on the importance of the nature of the presentation of the message. One method involves passive reading in which receivers read the defensive material. Another method is to read the material and underline the passages relating to the arguments presented in the defense. Next, experimenters supply an outline where the defensive material is to be written out. The last method is to write out the arguments without any help.

[B]Example:[/B]

McGuire’s basic method included constructing a persuasive message attacking a cultural truism such as, “An apple a day, keeps the doctor away.†This message would contain statements like “eating too many apples can cause digestive problems.†Prior to this message, material would be introduced that should strengthen the belief in the truism.

Rank's Model of Persuasion, 1976 (Theorist: Hugh Rank) states that persuaders use two major strategies to achieve their goals. These strategies are nicely set into two main schemas known as (1) intensify, and (2) downplay. The persuader will do this in one of four methods.

1) Intensify their own strong points.
2) Intensify the weak points of the opposition.
3) Downplay their own weak points.
4) Downplay the strong points of the opposition.

[B]Example:[/B]

While arguing about their favorite movies, Damien continues to insist to Joey that the Terminator movies were much better than the Matrix movies. Rank's Model contends that Damien will use one of four main strategies to argue his point to Joey. He will either:

1) Stress the great performances that were given by Terminator lead actor Arnold Schwarzeneger, while pointing out the acclaim that he received for the movies, OR
2) Stress what he believed was poor acting by Matrix lead actor Keanu Reeves, OR
3) Downplay the weak points of the Terminator movies, OR
4) Downplay the terrific performance by the Matrix actors.

Interpersonal Communication is an interactional process between two people, either face-to-face or through mediated forms. It is, in other words, a dialogue or conversation that is personal, direct and intimate. A lot depends on the relationship between the two individuals, their equality of status, the socio-cultural environment in which the exchange takes place etc. When a mechanical device ‘mediates’ in an interpersonal exchange, it is termed ‘interpersonal mediated communication’. Feedback is instantaneous and easy to measure. The following important aspects are stressed on:

Relational (Qualitative)
Communication in which the roles of sender and receiver are shared
by two people simultaneously in order to create meaning.
Situational (Contextual)
Communication that occurs between two people in a specific context.
Quantitative
Dyadic interactions, including impersonal communication.
Functional (Strategic)
Communication for the purpose of achieving interpersonal goals.

Group Communication is an interactional process that occurs among
three or more people interacting in an attempt to achieve commonly recognized goals either face-to-face or through mediated forms. The larger the group, the less intimate and personal is the possibility of exchange. Feedback is the key word here. Feedback is not instantaneous and is difficult to measure.

Groupthink is an important aspect in group communication. This occurs when a homogenous highly cohesive group is so concerned with maintaining unanimity that they fail to evaluate all their alternatives. Groupthink members see themselves as part of an in-group working against an outgroup opposed to their goals. Groups engaged in groupthink tend to make faulty decisions when compared to the decisions that could have been reached using a fair, open, and rational decision-making process. Group thinking groups tend to:

1- fail to adequately determine their objectives and alternatives,
2- fail to adequately assess the risks associated with the group's decision,
3- fail to cycle through discarded alternatives to reexamine their worth after a majority of the group discarded the alternative,
4- not seek expert advice,
5- select and use only information that supports their position and conclusions, and does not make contingency plans in case their decision and resulting actions fail.

[B]Group leaders can prevent groupthink by:[/B]

1- encouraging members to raise objections and concerns;
2- refraining from stating their preferences at the onset of the group's activities;
3- allowing the group to be independently evaluated by a separate group with a different leader;
4- splitting the group into sub-groups, each with different chairpersons, to separately generate alternatives, then bringing the sub-groups together to hammer out differences;
5- allowing group members to get feedback on the group's decisions from their own constituents;
6- seeking input from experts outside the group;
7- assigning one or more members to play the role of the devil's advocate;
8- requiring the group to develop multiple scenarios of events upon which they are acting, and contingencies for each scenario; and
9- calling a meeting after a decision consensus is reached in which all group members are expected to critically review the decision before final approval is given.

[B]Mass Communication[/B]

Mass Communication represents the creation and sending of a homogeneous message to a large heterogeneous audience through the media. Mass communication studies the uses and effects of the media by many as opposed to the study of human interaction as in other communication contexts.

Group communication has now been extended by the tools of mass communication: the press, radio, television, video and cinema. A lot of discussion has been generated on the ‘power’ of the mass media (termed by Daniel Learner as ‘mobility multipliers’ and by Schramm as ‘magic multipliers’). A mass media, according to Schramm, is essentially a working group organized around some device for circulating the same message, at about the same time to large numbers of people. Mass media are founded on the idea of mass production and mass distribution.

[B]Functions of The Mass Media[/B]

The following are the basic functions performed by the mass media:

1- Information: Surveillance of the environment relates to news about the happenings in society. The mass media carry out this function by keeping us informed about the latest events in and around the world.
2- Entertainment: Mass media help us relax with family and friends and pass time. They also fulfill our psychological and social needs.
3- Symbolic Function: Mass media provide a shared symbolic environment. George Gerbner sees television as the central symbol of American culture.
4- Development: The mass media in developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America perform the function of facilitators of ‘development communication’ focusing on the socio-economic needs of the backward sections of society.
5- Advertising: This is a commercial function that helps keep the economic status of a country healthy. At the same time it would be suicidal to let this function dominate over the other functions of the mass media.
Effects

Bernard Berelson arrived at the conclusion that ‘some kinds of communication on some kinds of issues, brought to the attention of some kinds of people under some kind of conditions have some kinds of effects’.
Theories Of Media Effects

[B]The Medium Not the Message[/B]

Marshall McLuhan said “The medium is the messageâ€. No matter what the contents of the programmes, he argued that the audiences will watch television…it commands their attention as no other medium has. Mass Communications are neither good nor bad, but rather mystical devices that possess powers to change the way humans lead their lives.

[B]Reinforcement
[/B]
McLuhan’s theory did not find total support. Joseph Klapper and other theorists believed in the reinforcement function of mass media. Only after reinforcing existing values and attitudes can programmes of the media be popular with the majority of social groups interested in perpetuating their own traditions and status.

[B]Narcosis
[/B]
Lazarsfeld and Merton held that the mass media could not be relied upon to work for changes, even minor ones, in the social structure. They perceived in mass communication a ‘narcotising dysfunction’ that distracts and prevents audiences from facing real problems. Exposure to a flood of information serve to narcotize rather than energize the average audience.. This theory is now outdated as the media today have a galvanizing effect in bringing about many revolutionary changes example, bringing about an end to the Vietnam War, bringing about Nixon’s exit through Watergate exposure etc.

[B]Catharsis[/B]

Seymour Feshbach, the main exponent of this theory, argued that the media may have a ’cathartic’ effect on the audiences and purges them of anti-social or unfulfilled desires and frustrations. A study was conducted on a group of college students. They were subject to savage insults and criticisms by experimenters. A portion of the group was shown an aggressive film of a brutal boxing match, another portion was shown a dull ‘control’ film. It was found that those students who had seen the aggressive film felt less hostile to their experimenters than those who had seen the control film.
But in a parallel study conducted by Berkovitz, it was found that the aggressive film was responsible for the aggressive response of the students. Other experiments have shown that children are likely to imitate violence in films.

[B]Manipulation[/B]

he manipulation theory by Ernst Van Haag is an extreme view that states that mass communications are demeaning, depersonalizing instruments of manipulation. But it is to be noted that social and economic circumstances and not mass media alone foster such hedonism.

[B]Windows On The World[/B]

Edward Shils and David M. White are of the view that mass media constitute ‘windows on the world’ dealing in new and popular culture that bring more of the ‘good’ to more people than ever before in history. But White talks about the ‘gate-keeper’ aspect of the editor who sees to it that only those events which he believes to be true should reach the audience.

[B]Corruptive[/B]

Frederick Wertham also holds an extreme view that the content of the media is corruptive and inculcates materialism and anti-social behaviour towards others.

[B]Receiver Factors[/B]

Several factors determine media influence. The role played by primary, secondary and reference groups and by public opinion leaders are important. Receiver factors are related intimately to every aspect of the personality of the audience and must not be considered in isolation. The main receiver factors are attitudes, beliefs, opinions, interests, motivation and the manner of processing, retaining and rejecting of information.

can u plz provide me exact outline for Journalism?

[QUOTE=israrahmed;317511]can u plz provide me exact outline for Journalism?[/QUOTE]

[url]http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css-optional-subjects/group-b/journalism/44863-journalism-notes-points.html[/url]

[QUOTE=israrahmed;317511]can u plz provide me exact outline for Journalism?[/QUOTE]

Did you mean course outline?

[B]Problems of press in Pakistan[/B]

Basically there are two problems

1. Freedom of press
2. Economic condition of press

[B] FREEDOM OF PRESS:[/B]

There can be difference of opinion about the topic freedom of the press. we get different opinions on this issue. Govermant of Pakistan, history reveals, always used a strong hand to curb the voice of journalist on different occasions. The history of Pakistan is full of incidents when dictators ( civil and military) put the press under its control. The purpose was always hiding of the facts from public. Freedom of expression in democratic countries is vital. But every democratic government in Pakistan imposed restrictions on media. We know that press should be given freedom but this freedom shall not be misused.



[B]2. Economic Conditions of Newspapers:[/B]

[B] distribution of advertisement:[/B]

Advertisement is blood of newspaper. 60 percent advertisement in newspaper is from govt. and 40 percent from private sector. Govt. uses advertisement as weapon and makes its distribution unjustified when ever required.

[B]2. Supply of newsprint paper:[/B]

Govt imports newsprint paper and imposes heavy taxes on it. Govt use this monopoly as weapon against press

[B]3. Raw material:[/B]

Press machine parts, paper, ink, plate colors and other material are getting expensive day by day. The per capita income of reader is decreasing on the other hand. The sales of newspapers as a result remain low and newspaper face financial constraints.

[B]4. Illiteracy: literacy rate in Pakistan is 45%.[/B]

[B]5.Press advice:[/B]

With the help of press advice newspapers are asked to do or not to do any certain action by govt. press advice is also a weapon in the hand of govt.


[B]6. Limited buying capacity:[/B]

Buying capacity of public in Pakistan is less. Ordinary day’s urdu newspaper is of rs 9 and Sunday of 13, where as incase of English Rs 13 and 15 respectively. People are not able to buy newspaper every day.

[B]7. Unskilled journalist:[/B]

Journalists are mostly untrained. The profession is low paid. Journalist faces hard life except few.

[B]8. Social Habit:[/B]

People read news paper at libraries, barbershop, hotels and bookstall for the reason that the wont have to buy it. Due to this social behavior newspapers are not purchased and newspaper owner faces financial problems.

[B]9. Distribution of newspaper:[/B]

The distribution agent gets 30% commission due to which newspaper industry suffers.

[B]10. Press trust of Pakistan:[/B]

On oct 08, 1959 ayub’s martial law was criticized by journalists. Faiz ahmed faiz , ahmed nadeem qasmi syed shibli hassan were arrested under safety act. The asscociated press of Pakistan APP was taken over by government

[B].11. Censorship:[/B]

Govt. deprives freedom of press with censorship. Censorship is usually imposed during conflicts (internat), national crises. The govt officers check the news paper.

[B]12. Competition with other sources of information:[/B]

Press has to compete against radio, television, internet etc.

[B][U]Propaganda[/U][/B]

[I]The dissemination of information—facts, arguments, rumors, half-truths, or lies—to influence public opinion.[/I]

Propaganda is the more or less systematic effort to manipulate other people's beliefs, attitudes, or actions by means of symbols (words, gestures, banners, monuments, music, clothing, insignia, hairstyles, designs on coins and postage stamps, and so forth). Deliberateness and a relatively heavy emphasis on manipulation distinguish propaganda from casual conversation or the free and easy exchange of ideas. The propagandist has a specified goal or set of goals.

To achieve these he deliberately selects facts, arguments, and displays of symbols and presents them in ways he thinks will have the most effect. To maximize effect, he may omit pertinent facts or distort them, and he may try to divert the attention of the reactors (the people whom he is trying to sway) from everything but his own propaganda.

Comparatively deliberate selectivity and manipulation also distinguish propaganda from education. The educator tries to present various sides of an issue—the grounds for doubting as well as the grounds for believing the statements he makes, and the disadvantages as well as the advantages of every conceivable course of action. Education aims to induce the reactor to collect and evaluate evidence for himself and assists him in learning the techniques for doing so.

It must be noted, however, that a given propagandist may look upon himself as an educator, may believe that he is uttering the purest truth, that he is emphasizing or distorting certain aspects of the truth only to make a valid message more persuasive, and that the courses of action that he recommends are in fact the best actions that the reactor could take.

By the same token, the reactor who regards the propagandist's message as self-evident truth may think of it as educational; this often seems to be the case with “true believers”—dogmatic reactors to dogmatic religious or social propaganda. “Education” for one person may be “propaganda” for another.

[B][SIZE=3] Public Relation [/SIZE][/B]

[SIZE=3]
[/SIZE] [FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]Every thing that is calculated to improve mutual understanding between organizations and to whom it contact with in and out side organization (stakeholders) is called public relation. Public relation department in an organization focuses on building a good image of department in general public and more specifically before the stockholders. It is basically an action to discover and eliminate sources of misunderstanding. Methods for removing confusion among the minds of people are adopted. Steps are taken to broaden sphere of influence of an organization by appropriate publicity, advertising, exhibition etc.[/SIZE][/FONT][SIZE=3]
[/SIZE][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]Every thing directed toward improving communication between people and organization can be regarded as public relation.[/SIZE][/FONT][SIZE=3]

[/SIZE] [FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]Public relation is not:[/SIZE][/FONT][LIST=1][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]a barrier between the truth and public as advertisement some times becomes.[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]a propaganda to impose a point of view regardless of truth, ethics and the public good[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]Publicity aimed directly at achieving sales.[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]composed of stunts or gimmicks[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]unpaid advertising[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]merely press relation[/SIZE][/FONT][/LIST][SIZE=3]
[/SIZE][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]Public relation in the central and local government is non political. It is to promote democracy and not to advance the policy of any party.[/SIZE][/FONT][SIZE=3]

[/SIZE] [FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]Practical application:[/SIZE][/FONT][LIST][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]as positive step to achieve good will[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]as action to safeguard reputation[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]for strengthening internal relationship of organization[/SIZE][/FONT][/LIST][SIZE=3]
[/SIZE][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]Pre requisite of effective public relation:[/SIZE][/FONT][SIZE=3]
[/SIZE][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3] Public relation is device to create and maintain effective relation between institutions and public.[/SIZE][/FONT][SIZE=3]
[/SIZE][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]Following are the imperatives of effective public relation:[/SIZE][/FONT][LIST][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]There should be full time department of PR.[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]The PR Deptt. Should be aware of it environment and prevailing circumstances.[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]The PR deptt. Should identify the audience clearly to whom message is to be given.[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]Deptt. Should be aware of the problems and interest of public.[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]PR Deptt. Should be objective and clear about their aims.[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]Selection of best medium of mass communication[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]Evaluate the results carefully[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]Public relation officer shall be expert in his job i.e. well versed, vigilant and well educated.[/SIZE][/FONT][/LIST][SIZE=3]
[B][FONT=Arial Narrow]Purposes of PR:[/FONT][/B][/SIZE][LIST][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]To achieve good will[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]To minimize the opposition[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]To maintain the reputation[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]To create mutual understanding[/SIZE][/FONT][/LIST][SIZE=3]

[B][FONT=Arial Narrow]Functions:[/FONT][/B][/SIZE] [LIST=1][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]organization management[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]relationship between an organization and public [/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]Monitor inside and outside org.[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]Analysis of impact of organizational policies, procedures and actions on public.[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]adjust policies and procedures if in conflict with public interest[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3]counsel management on establishment of new policies[/SIZE][/FONT][/LIST]

[U][B][FONT=Times New Roman]SOURCES OF NEWS[/FONT][/B][/U]


[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Following are the sources of news:[/SIZE][/FONT]
[LIST=1][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Radio[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]TV[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Correspondents[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Reporters[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]News Agencies[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Police Stations[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Fire Brigade stations [/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Hospitals[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Courts[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Institutions[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Press Interviews[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Press conferences[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Press release[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Press Notes[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Handouts[/SIZE][/FONT][/LIST]

[B][U][SIZE=3] Mass communication [/SIZE][/U][/B]


[B][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]Introduction[/SIZE][/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]Communication is the process of sharing our ideas, thoughts, and feelings[/SIZE][/FONT][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3] with other people and having those ideas, thoughts, and feelings[/SIZE][/FONT][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3] understood by the people we are talking with. When we communicate we[/SIZE][/FONT][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3] speak, listen, and observe.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]The way we communicate is a learned style. As children we learn from[/SIZE][/FONT][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3] watching our parents and other adults communicate. As an adult we can[/SIZE][/FONT][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3] learn to improve the way we communicate by observing others who communicate[/SIZE][/FONT][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3] effectively, learning new skills, and practicing those skills.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]Mass communication is a multi stage process by which an organization using technical devices or intermediate transmitters sends messages widely and rapidly to large, scattered, heterogeneous audience. The audience is unknown to sender and has limited opportunity to provide feedback.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]Mass communication is made through mechanics or media involved. This is dissemination of ideas and thought but through mass media, media that targets large population.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[B][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]Communication process[/SIZE][/FONT][/B]

[LIST][*][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]Sender (encode) : Encodes message and send to other person[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]Channel : The message passes through a medium[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]Noise : disturbance created during communication process[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]Message receiver ( decoder): person who receives message[/SIZE][/FONT][*][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]Feedback : reaction of receiver on getting message from sender[/SIZE][/FONT][/LIST] [B][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]Means of Mass Communication:[/SIZE][/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]· [/B]News paper[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]· [/B]Radio[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]· [/B]Television[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]· [/B]Internet[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]· [/B]Books[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]· [/B]Pamphlets[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]· [/B]Posters[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]· [/B]Neon sign board[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]· [/B]Cyber journalism[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]· [/B]SMS- news alert[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]· [/B]Mobile internet[/SIZE][/FONT]

[B][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]Barriers of communication:[/SIZE][/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]The message or the idea which is to be conveyed also must be in a language which is colloquial and understandable. Because if the message is misinterpreted communication would not be effective. [/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][COLOR=black]An effective communication barrier is one of the problems faced by many organizations. Many social psychologists opine that there is 50% to 70% loss of meaning while conveying the messages from a sender to a receiver. They estimate there are four basic places where communication could be interpreted wrongly. A few barriers of effective communication in an organization are given below. [/COLOR][/SIZE][/FONT]

[COLOR=black][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]Physical Barriers[/B] - One of the major barriers of communication in a workplace is the physical barrier. Physical barriers in an organization includes large working areas that are physically separated from others. Other distractions that could cause a physical barrier in an organization are the environment, background noise

[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][COLOR=black][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]Language[/B] - Inability to converse in a language that is known by both the sender and receiver is the greatest barrier to effective communication. When a person uses inappropriate words while conversing or writing, it could lead to misunderstanding between the sender and a receiver. [/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR]

[COLOR=black][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]Emotions[/B] - Your emotions could be a barrier to communication if you are engrossed in your emotions for some reason. In such cases, you tend to have trouble listening to others or understanding the message conveyed to you. A few of the emotional interferences include hostility, anger, resentfulness and fear. [/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR]

[COLOR=black][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]Lack of Subject Knowledge[/B] - If a person who sends a message lacks subject knowledge then he may not be able to convey his message clearly. The receiver could misunderstand his message, and this could lead to a barrier to effective communication. [/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR]

[COLOR=black][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]Stress[/B] - One of the major communication barriers faced by employees in most of the organization is stress. When a person is under immense stress, he may find it difficult to understand the message, leading to communication distortion. At the time of stress, our psychological frame of mind depends on our beliefs, experiences, goals and values. Thus, we fail to realize the essence of communication[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR].

[B][U][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3] Magazine Journalism [/SIZE][/FONT][/U][/B]

[FONT=Arial Narrow]
[SIZE=3] [B]Introduction[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][SIZE=3] [/SIZE] [FONT=Arial Narrow]

[/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3][COLOR=black]Magazine journalism uses the traditional journalism tools of interviews, background research and writing to produce articles for consumer and trade magazines. Magazine journalism differs from newspaper journalism in at least five ways.

Newspapers have a very broad audience with widely varying ages and interests confined to one metropolitan area. Magazines have a national audience who has a very specialized interest in one particular topic. Magazines are published monthly instead of daily. Therefore readers expect articles that are longer with much more in-depth analysis of issues and trends.[/COLOR][/SIZE][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow]

[/FONT] [FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]Magazine, a publication issued at regular intervals, usually weekly or monthly, containing articles stories , photographs, advertisement, and other features, with a page size that is usually smaller than that of a newspaper but larger that that of a book.[/SIZE][/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow]

[/FONT] [FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]Magazine today is an important source of information. It performs entertainment function very well and builds the opinion of reader on the other hand.[/SIZE][/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow]

[B][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]Brief History:[/SIZE][/COLOR][/B][/FONT] [FONT=Arial Narrow]

[/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]·[/SIZE] [/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]First magazine was “review” in 1704 written for nine years by Daniel defoe. It consisted of four pages three times a week.[/SIZE][/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow]
[/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]·[/SIZE] [/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]In 1709 “tattler “by Richard steel was published. It was edited by a fictitious editor called “isac Bickerstaff”.[/SIZE][/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow]
[/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]·[/SIZE] [/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]In 1711 “spectator” by joseph Addison was published.[/SIZE][/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow]

[B][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]In sub continent:[/SIZE][/COLOR][I][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]

[/SIZE][/COLOR][/I][/B] [/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]·[/SIZE] [/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]First magazine published in 1870 was “hickey gazette” . the editor was james augustus hickey. It was an English magazine.[/SIZE][/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow]
[/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]·[/SIZE] [/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]After independence of Pakistan there was the birth of a new independent society in Pakistan.[/SIZE][/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow]
[/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]·[/SIZE] [/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]Journalism played up role in information of society.[/SIZE][/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow]
[/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]·[/SIZE] [/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]National press trust was created in 1963.[/SIZE][/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow]
[/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]·[/SIZE] [/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]Due to NPT declaration of magazine was difficult to obtain.[/SIZE][/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow]
[/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]·[/SIZE] [/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]General yahya relaxed restrictions but imposed later on.[/SIZE][/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow]
[/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]·[/SIZE] [/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]General ziaulhuq lifted restrictions for a short period.[/SIZE][/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow]
[/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]·[/SIZE] [/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]In 1988 interim government cancelled the press and publication ordinance and a new ordinance i.e. Registration of printing and press ordinance (RPPO) was made.[/SIZE][/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow]
[/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]·[/SIZE] [/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]RPPO is still running in Pakistan.[/SIZE][/COLOR][/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow]

[B][COLOR=black][SIZE=3]Types of Magazines:[/SIZE][/COLOR][/B][/FONT] [FONT=Arial Narrow]

[/FONT][FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3][COLOR=black]Following are the most common types of magazines.[/COLOR][/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3][B]Magazines of general interest:[/B] these magazines cater the need of entire population and have large circulation. In Pakistan Lailo nihar, Zindagi, Urdu digest, Quomi Digest, Family, Akhbare jahan are the examples. The world famous reader digest is also in same category.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3][B]News Magazine[/B]: these are periodicals which are produced weekly or fortnightly. Articles on situation, politics, Economics, Religon, industry, sports etc are published e.g. Herald, Weekly Pulse, and Times.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3][B]High Class Magazines[/B]: These magazine are aimed at selected audience, they appeal to a particular class. These magazines are serious minded periodicals offering high level reporting with emphasis upon literacy, ethical, social, political or scientific problems.[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3][B]Magazine of Men’s Interest[/B]: e.g. sports, love stories, fashion, photos[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3][B]Technical Magazines[/B]: these magazines are for specialized sections of society i.e. engineering, medicine, gardening etc.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3][B]The House Magazine/ Journals[/B]: These are produced by companies, organizations etc and are distributed free of cost to employees, customers. The purpose behind is to present the products of a company. House journals are produced by the public relation department of any organization.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3][B]Literary Magazine[/B]: before partition there were literary men like sirsyed, laulana zafar ali khan, hasrat muhani, mulana Muhammad ali jauhar etc. they were poets, writers and literary figures. They published literary magazines but after publication of general magazine their popularity suffered. At present news papers of Pakistan publish their literary weekly. Magazines e.g. humayun, nairang-i- khayal, were very popular but they were closed. At present fanon, naqoosh, sawara, nia dur are famous.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3][B]Religious Magazine[/B]: tarjuman ul quran, turjuman ul hadith, iblagh, al Islam etc.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3][B]Film Magazine[/B]: Shama, Musawar, Nigar, Roman, Shabab, Mumtaz are examples.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3][B]Sports Magazine[/B]: cricketer, sports times etc[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Arial Narrow][SIZE=3][B]Magazine For Children[/B]: Phool, Taleem, Naunihal, bacho ka digest are examples.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[SIZE=4][U][B][FONT=Times New Roman]NEWS[/FONT][/B][/U][/SIZE]

[SIZE=3] [B][FONT=Times New Roman]Introduction:[/FONT][/B][/SIZE]

[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] News is a report of recent or current event or information published in newspaper or other periodicals.[/FONT][/SIZE]

[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] “News may be defined as any accurate fact or idea that will interest a large number of readers”[/FONT][/SIZE]

[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] Carl warren says that the word NEWS is not composed from the initials of compass points i.e. north, east, west and south. It is simply the plural of English word new.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Lord North says that if a dog bites man it is not news but if reverse happens than it is news.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]Elements/ values of news OR Determinants of News:[/FONT][/SIZE][/B][B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]

Proximity:[/FONT][/SIZE][/B][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Proximity means nearness in space. The news which is closer to reader or receiver is more valuable than that whose origin is father. E.g. for people living in Lahore will value news from Lahore more than any other city.[/SIZE][/FONT][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]

Timeliness[/B]:[/FONT][/SIZE][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]It means nearness in time. An event occurring latestly is more valued than any other previous news. People are more interested in updates.[/SIZE][/FONT][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]

Magnitude[/B]:[/FONT][/SIZE][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Magnitude means that how many people are affected from an event. The greater magnitude means highly valued news as it effects higher number of people. E.g. Earthquake, Assassination of benazir etc.[/SIZE][/FONT][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]

Significance[/B]:[/FONT][/SIZE][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]It debates on importance of the event which becomes news. It focuses on the consequences of a happening e.g. great medical discovery, national decisions (operation in swat) etc.[/SIZE][/FONT][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]

Policy[/B]:[/FONT][/SIZE][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Newspaper owner decides about the policy of news. He decides that what types of news will be published in that newspaper. Therefore the policy effects in determining news. E.g. pro labor or antilabour, pro government or anti government.[/SIZE][/FONT][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]

conflict[/B]:[/FONT][/SIZE][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]In human life conflicts takes place and they become news. Election, sports, man vs. man conflict news and stories are much important and are placed on front page.[/SIZE][/FONT][B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]

Famous and important places:[/FONT][/SIZE][/B][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]News about famous places are valued more e.g. place like London, Karachi, Tokyo, Paris are important when determining a news.[/SIZE][/FONT][B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]

Oddity: (The quality of being strange)[/FONT][/SIZE][/B][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Oddity plays important role for news determining. More oddity mean more value of news e.g. Lord North says that if a dog bites man it is not news but if reverse happens than it is news.[/SIZE][/FONT][B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]

Suspense:[/FONT][/SIZE][/B][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Suspense is essential for news e.g. what will be the result of conflict between government and opposition e.g. condition after governor raj in Punjab in 2009.[/SIZE][/FONT][B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]

Important Personality:[/FONT][/SIZE][/B][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]News about important personalities like any celebrity is valued and this factor determines news.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[B][U][SIZE=3] Press council ordinance 2002 [/SIZE][/U][/B]

[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]General Pervaiz Musharaf in October 2002 promulgated the press council ordinance which provides for a press council for Pakistan professedly aimed at[/SIZE][/FONT]:

[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][FONT=Symbol]· [/FONT]Improving professional standards of all journalists.[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][FONT=Symbol]· [/FONT]To insure press freedom in the country.[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][FONT=Symbol]· [/FONT]The council allows for a mechanism to register complaints by the public in violation of an ethical code of practice.[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]The law states that the code which deals with such weighty issues as morality, plagiarism, fairness etc will let journalists perform their duty with responsibility. The council will be an independent entity.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]Functions[/B]:[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][FONT=Calibri]1. [/FONT]Preserve press freedoms by maintaining high professional and ethical standards of newspaper and news agencies.[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][FONT=Calibri]2. [/FONT]Helping newspaper and news agencies to maintain independence.[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][FONT=Calibri]3. [/FONT]Revise, update, enforce and implement the code for newspapers, news agencies, editors, journalists and publisher.[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][FONT=Calibri]4. [/FONT]Receive complaints about violation of codes by newspaper, editors, and journalist.[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][FONT=Calibri]5. [/FONT]Appoint inquiry commission to decide complaint.[/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][FONT=Calibri]6. [/FONT]Receive complaints by newspaper or journalists against government officials or organizations including political parties for hindering functions of press.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3][B]Composition[/B]:[/SIZE][/FONT]

[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]The council comprises of 19 members.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[B][FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]Conclusion:[/SIZE][/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Book Antiqua][SIZE=3]In Pakistan a voluntary code of ethics was adopted in 1972 by general assembly of the committee of the press and hence there was no reason a new code was required.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[B][U][SIZE="4"]Global Village[/SIZE][/U][/B]


Global Village is a term closely associated with Marshall McLuhan, popularized in his books The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1962) and Understanding Media (1964). McLuhan describes how the globe has been contracted into a village by electric technology and the instantaneous movement of information from every quarter to every point at the same time. In bringing all social and political functions together in a sudden implosion, electric speed has heightened human awareness of responsibility to an intense degree.

Today, the term "Global Village" is mostly used as a metaphor to describe the Internet and World Wide Web. On the Internet, physical distance is even less of a hindrance to the real-time communicative activities of people, and therefore social spheres are greatly expanded by the openness of the web and the ease at which people can search for online communities and interact with others that share the same interests and concerns.

Therefore, this technology fosters the idea of a conglomerate yet unified global community.Due to the enhanced speed of communication online and the ability of people to read about, spread, and react to global news very rapidly, McLuhan says this forces us to become more involved with one another from countries around the world and be more aware of our global responsibilities. Similarly, web-connected computers enable people to link their web sites together. This new reality has implications for forming new sociological structures within the context of culture.

There is some disagreement in the consideration of the Internet as promoting the idea of a global village. Modern theorist Glenn Willmott says McLuhan's idea of the Global Village is a clichéd phrase that does not take into account the corruption of the Internet by government and corporate censorship and control over information on the web (news and entertainment information in particular).

The notion of the digital divide also signifies why the idea of global village is the problem is because we have more technical things these days. The idea of a Global Village is problematic; not all people are connected to the Internet equally (notably the economically disadvantaged) and those that lack web access are excluded from global news and participating in online communities, then modern communication technology does not truly promote a Global Village as McLuhan described it for all people.

Communication media can also be used to divide people within the sphere of online communities. For example, scholars Marshall Van Alstyne and Erik Brynjolfsson offer a contrasting view in their paper, "Electronic Communities: Global Village or Cyberbalkans?" They say that although modern communication technologies have the potential to create the unified communities reminiscent of McLuhan's idea of the Global Village, they also threaten to balkanize or fragment communities by allowing people to easily segregate themselves into geographic and special interest groups.

[B][U][SIZE="4"]Freedom of the press[/SIZE][/U][/B]


[I] Freedom of the press consists of constitutional or statutory protections pertaining to the media and published materials.[/I]

With respect to governmental information, any government distinguishes which materials are public or protected from disclosure to the public based on classification of information as sensitive, classified or secret and being otherwise protected from disclosure due to relevance of the information to protecting the national interest. Many governments are also subject to sunshine laws or freedom of information legislation that are used to define the ambit of national interest.

[B] "I fear the newspapers more than a hundred thousand bayonets."[/B]

— Napoleon Bonaparte

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference, and impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers"

Without liberty of the press, there can be no free access to public information and the public opinion to which all free men are entitled. In a democratic society unless the press itself enjoys freedom it cannot defend and protect the rights and liberties of the citizens. Only free press can perform sacred task of fourth estate. Freedom of the press cannot be used as a license against any one.

Howsoever free the press may be it cannot be allowed the freedom to call in question the integrity of the judges of high court and Supreme Court or to defame them. Our constitution under article 19 has recognized the freedom of expression and speech of the citizens, which is the basis of freedom of the press, but this right is subject to any restriction imposed by law in the interest of glory of Islam or integrity or security of Pakistan, friendly relations with foreign states, public order, decency or morality, contempt of court, defamation an incitement to an office.

There has been a demand in Pakistan that such an amendment should be made in constitution so that in future no government is able to clamp censorship on the press.

There is no doubt that censorship on the press violates the freedom of speech and expression of the citizens. It violates the citizen’s rights to free flow of communication. Censorship is not justified except in times of war or internal insurrection.

[B][U][SIZE=3] Ethics of Journalism [/SIZE][/U][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]American society of newspaper editors (ASNE) prescribed the following canons of journalism in 1923 which are as follows.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]1. Responsibility:[/FONT][/SIZE][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]The journalist should be a responsible man and perform his duties responsibly.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]2[/B].[/FONT][B][FONT=Times New Roman]Freedom Of Press:[/FONT][/B][/SIZE]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Freedom Of press shall not be used as a weapon against any one. Journalist shall report the news in its true sense and shall not try to make someone’s image.[/SIZE][/FONT]


[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]3. Independence[/B][B]:

[/B][/FONT][/SIZE][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]The policy of a newspaper should be independent and shall not favour any political or administrative figure. There shall be no bias and prejudices against any one.[/SIZE][/FONT]


[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]4. Sincerity, Truthfulness And Accuracy[/B]:
[/FONT][/SIZE]

[SIZE=3][B][FONT=Times New Roman]5. [/FONT][/B][B][FONT=Times New Roman]Impartiality:[/FONT][/B][/SIZE]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]The newspaper editor shall show impartiality. He shall stand neutral in all cases.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]6.[B]Fair play:[/B][/FONT][/SIZE][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]

The journalist shall show a fair play. They shall not misuse their position and shall work in the best interest of society.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]7.Decency:[/FONT][/SIZE][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]The journalist shall not give detail of any unethical crime.[/SIZE][/FONT]

[B][U][SIZE=3] Development made in pakistani journalism [/SIZE][/U][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Pakistani society, since freedom, is striving toward progress. A society and press are interrelated. Pakistani journalism particularly urdu journalism has made much progress in last decades. The developments are:[/SIZE][/FONT][B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]

Supply of NEWS:[/FONT][/SIZE][/B][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]

Previously news reached late to office but nowadays it reaches in time. Installation of teleprinters has given much help in this regard. News is also gathered from radio and TV. Newspapers have their correspondents at different locations around the world who gather information and send it to office. Now days fax machines are used. Direct to home DTH technology is also available. Internet serves this purpose very well. Reports use mobiles. Live telecast is very easy nowadays.[/SIZE][/FONT][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]

Makeup[/B]:[/FONT][/SIZE][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]

Make up is process of assembling a page or the art of putting effectively and artistically matters on the page. Before partition the make up of the news papers was meeting standards. Imroze, jang, Nawa-e-waqt, Express now come with modern make up. Make up effects audience and increases the circulation of newspaper.[/SIZE][/FONT][B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]

Changes in the topics of editorial:[/FONT][/SIZE][/B][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]

Previously the editorials were political in nature only. Now editorials are written on economic, social and cultural problems as well. Editorial is the soul of newspaper. The columns and opinions are also important.[/SIZE][/FONT][B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]

The Authenticity of language:[/FONT][/SIZE][/B][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]

Before partition journalists of urdu like zafar ali khan, hasrat mohani and abdul kalam azad were poet, writer and journalist at the same time so there was no professionalism. Now we have journalists with masters degree in journalism from universities. They are now trained professionals.[/SIZE][/FONT][B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]

The taste of the reader:[/FONT][/SIZE][/B][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Today newspapers are written keeping in view taste of readers.[/SIZE][/FONT][B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]

Special Edition:[/FONT][/SIZE][/B][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Every newspaper today publish special edition on subjects of wide area i.e political, education, literacy, films etc.[/SIZE][/FONT][LIST][*][B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]Use of Computers[/FONT][/SIZE][/B][*][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]Humorous Columns[/B]: are also given place in newspapers nowdays.[/FONT][/SIZE][*][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]Pictures[/B]: pictorial journalism is a product of 20th century. Pictures attract reader and give more clarity of subject.[/FONT][/SIZE][*][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]Progress in printing[/B]: offset type has bee adopted instead of lithoprinting which brought revolution. Rotary machines have been installed which print from 20 to 25 copies at the same time. Now whole newspaper along with picture is printed at the same time.[/FONT][/SIZE][*][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]Increase in circulation[/B]: there is marked increase in circulation of newspaper in Pakistan as compared to past.[/FONT][/SIZE][*][B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]Reference sections established at newspaper office:[/FONT][/SIZE][/B][*][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]Chains of Newspapers[/B]: A paper is published from several cities at same time e.g Jang is published from Karachi, Quetta, Lahore, Rawalpindi and London. Fax made this task easy.[/FONT][/SIZE][*][B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]Increase in advertisement: [/FONT][/SIZE][/B][*][B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]Mutual Competition Between Newspapers:[/FONT][/SIZE][/B][*][B][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]Sunday Magazine:[/FONT][/SIZE][/B][*][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]Yellow Journalism[/B]: William Hearst was the founder of yellow journalism. Sensational news and stories are published in news papers to attract more people.[/FONT][/SIZE][/LIST]

[B][U]Advertisment[/U][/B]


Advertising is a form of communication used to help sell products and services. Typically it communicates a message including the name of the product or service and how that product or service could potentially benefit the consumer. However, advertising does typically attempt to persuade potential customers to purchase or to consume more of a particular brand of product or service. Modern advertising developed with the rise of mass production in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Many advertisements are designed to generate increased consumption of those products and services through the creation and reinvention of the "brand image". For these purposes, advertisements sometimes embed their persuasive message with factual information. There are many media used to deliver these messages, including traditional media such as television, radio, cinema, magazines, newspapers, video games, the carrier bags, billboards, mail or post and Internet marketing. Today, new media such as digital signage is growing as a major new mass media. Advertising is often placed by an advertising agency on behalf of a company or other organization.

Advertisment is the art of persuading people. The word advrtisment is derived from latin word “ ADVERTERE” which mean to turn the mind . advertising does turn attention of public to a product , a service or an idea.

[B]Purposes of Advertisment:[/B][LIST=1][*]For successful marketing[*] Brande an article by trade mark[*] Eliminate, by fair competition, inferior brands by convincing people.[*] Create standard of quality.[*] Increase the demand of product[*] Improve the standard of living by creating new and better habits, saving labour , improving health.[*] Inform the consumer about the quality of a product.[*] Perform the function of salesman.[/LIST]
[B]Objectives of advertisment[/B]
[LIST][*]To inform people regarding product.[*] To create need[*] To develop purchasing attitudes.[*] To tell advantages of shown product over other.[*] To maintain the consumption of a product.[/LIST]

[B]Effective Advertising:[/B]


Each advertisement should be as possible to attract maximum attention, shall use simple language. The message in advertisement should be according to targeted audience .

An effective advertisement contains following characteristics.

[B][U]ADICA[/U][/B]

[B]A[/B]-Capture Attention of people
[B]I[/B]-Create Interest in the mind of people
[B]D[/B]-Develop Desire for purchasing
[B]C[/B] -Inspire Confidence
[B]A[/B]-Make Admonition

[B]Five must for advertisement:[/B]

When advertising you must make people

1. See it
2. Read It
3. Understand it,
4. Believe it
5. Want it

[B]Methods of Advertisement:[/B][LIST][*]Print Media: newspapers, magazine, handbills , periodicals[*] Electronic Media: TV , Radio, Internet[*] Out door Display: poster, Chalking on walls, Billboards[*] Neon Sign Boards: most popular method nowadays. At crowded places neon sign board displaying products.[*] Windows display: it means to put product in show case e.g. mobile in showcase.[*] Direct Mail: direct mail has limited effect[*] On Means Of Transportation: using spaces for advertisement on buses, rikshaws, trucks.[/LIST]
[B] Modern methods:[/B]
[LIST][*]SMS alert[*] Slides on cable TV[*] Cyber journalism[*] Goggle adsense[*] Yahoo adsense[*] Business blogs[*] Website creation[/LIST]
[B] Social Implications of advertisement:[/B]



1. it creates frustration
2. exploit masses
3. children’s are induced
4. develop purchasing mania
Economic:
1. effects on mass consumption
2. effects on production cost i.e. increase in demand increases cost
3. beneficial effects for retailers
4. effect consumer

[U][B]Public relations officer[/B][/U]

Public relations practitioners/officer provide communication services to organisations by giving advice to management, planning and implementing communication activities and evaluating their effectiveness.

[B] Responsibilities[/B]

There are a number of fields that require the services of a Public Relations Officer, which makes this career very interesting. Some of the fields are :-

1.Corporate Sector - shows that there is more to a particular organisation than merely making money; the activities and attitudes are portrayed as being beneficial and friendly towards the public.

2.Government - deals with informing the public about the government's schemes and activities and showing the overall benefit of these projects to society at large

3.Pressure Groups/Causes/Lobbies - This is possibly the most difficult area to work in, but the most fulfilling since it deals with particular groups of society or organisations that have been built with a cause to improve society in some way or the other. It is a relatively new area in India and demands dedication and extensive knowledge about the cause being fought for such as child labour, women's' issues, the environment, political ideology and so on. The work involves making the public aware of the issues through public programmes, fund-raising, charity shows, so that people are inspired to change and in-turn help convince the policy-makers

4.Products - involves creating a good image of the product before it is launched to ensure that consumers, retailers, distributors are enticed by it.

5.Public Personalities - This is probably the most glamorous of all the PR jobs since it deals with building and enhancing an image of well-known people such as politicians, sports people, musicians, actors/ actresses, writers etc.

6.Public Sector - aims to show and prove to the policy-makers and common person that the public money is being spent in a worthwhile manner

7.Schemes/ Projects - this involves informing the community being catered to or the organisation's employees about new schemes to reduce their apprehension towards change, answer any queries and show the overall benefit of these projects

8.Tourism/Hospitality Industry - quite an important field since the image projected will determine or influence people's attitudes.

[B]Training:[/B]

Public Relations Officers are usually university graduates. A few universities offer degree courses in Public Relations.

Graduates in other areas such as social sciences are employed by Public Relations Department.

All newcomers to the profession are trainees doing on-the-job training.
However, at some junior positions, certificates or diplomas in Communications are acceptable qualifications.

[B]Opportunities:[/B]

Public relations officers work for a variety of organisations such as large industrial or commercial firms, tertiary institutions, industry groups, retail outlets, financial institutions, charitable organisations and insurance firms.

There is strong competition for any positions offered in this field, but people with experience or formal educational qualifications are generally in demand.

[U][FONT=Georgia][SIZE=3][B]Bibliography:[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/U]


Post No. 1[URL="http://library.thinkquest.org/C0111500/spanamer/yellow.htm"].Yellow Journalism [/URL]

Post No. 2. [URL="http://www.peoi.org/Courses/Coursessp/mass/fram10.html"]Communication in the e-world - Issues [/URL]

Post No. 3. [URL="http://www.peoi.org/Courses/Coursessp/mass/fram10.html"]Communication in the e-world - Issues[/URL]

Post No. 4. [URL="http://www.peoi.org/Courses/Coursesde/mass/mass7.html"]BROADCAST JOURNALISM[/URL]

Post. No. 5. [URL="http://www.peoi.org/Courses/Coursesen/mass/fram3.html"]Uses and Effects of mass media
[/URL]
Post. No. 9. [URL="http://www.pressreference.com/No-Sa/Pakistan.html"]Pakistan, Press-Media [/URL]

Post. No. 10. [URL="http://universalium.academic.ru/179326/propaganda"]Propaganda [/URL]

Post. No. 11. [URL="http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/3577/1/umi-umd-3417.pdf"]Public Relations[/URL]

Post. No. 13. [URL="http://pdfcast.org/pdf/communication-process"]Communication Process
[/URL]
Post. No. 14. [URL="http://www.ask.com/questions-about/Magazine-Journalism"]Magazine Journalism[/URL]

Post. No. 15. [URL="http://www.scribd.com/doc/37705311/News-Writing"]News Writing [/URL]

Post. No. 16. [URL="http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/3.%20Pakistan%20Press%20Council%20Ordinance%202002.pdf"]Press council ordinance 2002 [/URL]

Post. No. 17. [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_village_%28term%29"]Global village[/URL]

Post. No. 18. [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press"]Freedom of Press [/URL]

Post. No. 19. [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalism_ethics_and_standards"]Ethics of Journalism [/URL]

Post. No. 20. [URL="http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css-optional-subjects/group-b/journalism/14834-development-pakistan-press-since-1947-a.html"]Ethics of Journalism [/URL]

Post. No. 21. [URL="http://in.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090904110437AAy84jw"]Advertising [/URL]

Post. No. 22. [URL="http://educare.intnet.mu/public_rel.html"]Public Relation Officer [/URL]

[QUOTE=tranquil;317721]Did you mean course outline?[/QUOTE]

Yes