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Humanistic Psychology
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
Humanistic psychology is a branch of psychology that developed from behaviorism. Humanistic psychologists thought that the behaviorists ignored the humanistic view of people, their needs, aspirations, hopes, fears, and focused only on behavior. In other words, the human and emotional element was ignored and only the apparent behavioral patterns were studied. They also thought that psychoanalysts put too much emphasis on unconscious motivations and they neglect “humanity” of man. Therefore, humanistic psychologists focused on such human sentiments as joy, contentment, kindness, ecstasy and generosity. Abraham Maslow Abraham Maslow was born in 1908 and he died in 1970. He was born in New York and he did PhD in 1934 form Wisconsin University. Maslow is famous for his theory of motivation, called the Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow's primary contribution to psychology is his Hierarchy of Human Needs. Maslow contended that humans have a number of needs that are instinctual, and are innate. Maslow assumed our needs are arranged in a hierarchy in terms of their potency. Although all needs are instinctive, some are more powerful than others. The lower the need is in hierarchy, the more powerful it is. The higher the need is in hierarchy, the weaker and more distinctly human it is. The lower, or basic, needs in the hierarchy are similar to those possessed by non-human animals, but only humans possess the higher needs. Those needs or motives are: i. Physiological needs At the bottom of the hierarchy are physiological needs, including the biological requirements for food, water, air, and sleep. ii. Safety needs Once the physiological needs are met, an individual can concentrate on the second level, the need for safety and security. Here included the needs for structure, order, security, and predictability. iii. Need for belongingness The third level is the need for love and belonging. Included here are the needs for friends and companions, a supportive family, identification with a group, and an intimate relationship. iv. Esteem Needs The fourth level is the esteem needs. This group of needs requires both recognition from other people that results in feelings of prestige, acceptance, status, and self-esteem that results in feelings of adequacy, competence, and confidence. Lack of satisfaction of the esteem needs results in discouragement and feelings of inferiority. v. Need for Self Actualization Finally, self-actualization sits at the apex of the original pyramid of needs. Self actualization needs refer to the need of achieving one’s true potential. Carl Rogers The other prominent humanistic psychologist was Carl Rogers who was born near Chicago, U.S.A., in 1902 and died in 1987. His education started from the second grade, because he had already read before kindergarten. He got his PhD in educational psychology from New York in 1931 and worked at Ohio State and University of Chicago. He was offered a full professorship at Ohio State in 1940. In 1942, he wrote his first book, Counseling and Psychotherapy. Then, in 1945, he was invited to set up a counseling center at the University of Chicago. It was while working there in 1951 that he published his major work, Client- Centered Therapy, wherein he outlines his basic theory. Carl Rogers (1902-1987) In 1961 in his book entitled “On Becoming a Person” he regarded self actualization as the greatest drive in human personality. He called it the highest level of mental health. According to Carl Rogers, a psychologically healthy person: • Has openness to experience • Fully lives the moment • Has a sense of freedom • And is highly creative Based upon his humanistic theory and point of view he developed his system of psychotherapy called Theory of Client Centered Therapy. According to this theory, the person has the capacity to rid himself of his problems. Method of Client Centered Therapy includes reflection in affective terms. |
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Modern Trends In Psychological Treatment
MODERN TRENDS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENT
Methods of psychological treatment have been varied throughout the history and have evolved with the passage of time. As psychology moved from the science of speculation, perceived by great philosophers such as Socrates, to the scientific study of human behavior, methods of treating psychological diseases also have been adapted with the changing outlook. Different schools of psychology focused on different aspects of psychological problems and all developed their own techniques and methods to get rid of these problems. Nowadays, according to the universally accepted standards, we can roughly divide mental diseases into two broad categories: • Less severe ones: Neurosis • More severe ones; Psychosis It would be interesting to note that over the world, there are two manuals available for classification of diseases, namely: • International Classification of Diseases (ICD) • Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) The former has been developed by the World Health Organization while the latter has been developed by the American Psychiatrist Association. Psychologists from all over the world got together to develop these manuals. These list all the known mental diseases up to date. Moving towards the treatment of mental diseases, depending upon the nature of disease and the extent of severity, two categories of treatments have emerged: a) Psychological approaches or methods of treatment b) Biological approaches or methods of treatment The psychological method of treatment is the approach in which the patient is not treated with medicines. Instead, the patient in this approach is treated with the help of psychological treatment, which means the psychologists try to find the root cause of the disease and then try to treat the patient by just listening and talking about the problem or disease. In other words, the psychologist focuses on discovering the root cause of the problem that the patient faces and tries to eliminate the problem through just talking to the patient, making him change his attitude etc. In this technique, no medicine is given to the patient. It involves methods such as psychotherapy. Methods such as group therapy, family therapy, etc. are also a part of this mode of treatment. In the biological approach, the patient is treated not only by listening and discussing the problem but also through medicines. The psychiatrist advises/recommends some medicines. Usually the psychiatrist advises medicines which help the patient to relax himself. In other words, biological approach focuses not only on solving the patient’s problem through talking and discussing; it also involves use of medicine for the treatment of mental diseases. Let us delve deep into the two approaches towards the treatment of mental diseases. a) Psychological Approaches As mentioned earlier, the psychological approach focuses on treatment of mental diseases by allowing the patient to vent out what is creating the problem. It does not involve the use of medicine.
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Born with personality is an accident but dying as a personality is an achievement. |
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Psychology in Pakistan
Psychology in Pakistan
Pakistan became an independent country in 1947. At the time of partition there were only two departments offering master’s degree in psychology. One at Dacca, East Pakistan, now Bangladesh and the other was Government College Lahore, affiliated with Punjab University where master’s classes were being held. Later, RajShahi University in East Pakistan/Bangladesh started offering masters degree and then Punjab University also set up the Applied Psychology Department. Later post graduate departments were also opened at Peshawar University, Karachi University and other colleges in Punjab. The main specializations taught at these institutions were: o Psychodynamics, particularly the Freudian/Jungian approaches o Social Psychology o Clinical Psychology o Experimental and General Psychology o Psychological Measurement Still later a National Institute of Psychology was set up at Islamabad, which undertook research in the areas of developmental psychology, forensic psychology, psychological measurement, etc. The NIP was later merged with Islamabad University. Graduates from these institutions have been employed in the armed forces, the labor departments, education departments, public service commissions in the public sector, and in private sector, in advertising and marketing organizations and organizations undertaking research. Most prominent educational institutions now offer master’s and post master’s courses and degrees. Many graduates from these institutes are engaged in private practice and consultation.
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Born with personality is an accident but dying as a personality is an achievement. |
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The Assessment Of Intelligence
THE ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
The history of clinical psychology is inextricably tied to the assessment of intelligence. Without the success in this and related assessment enterprises, there might not have been a field of clinical psychology. As the years passed, however; clinicians became increasingly interested in the more "glamorous" aspects of the profession, such as therapy. Assessment began to take a back seat, and technicians started to become the assessors, as they had been prior to World War II. However; all this is beginning to change. Not only is the value of assessment being rediscovered, but intelligence tests in particular remain prominent in the clinician's arsenal of assessment devices. THE CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCE The concept of intelligence has presented clinical psychology with one of its greatest dilemmas. On the one hand, psychologists have been pressured for almost 100 years to quantify individual differences in intellectual functioning. On the other hand, intelligence has remained one of the most difficult and controversial psychological construct to define and measure. The impetus to define and quantify intelligence comes from both practical and scientific forces. The practical significance lies in the potential use of measures of intelligence in predicting academic and work potential and achievement. From a scientific perspective, precise understanding of how to measure intelligence can contribute to our comprehension of an important aspect of human behavior and functioning. Two issues that have plagued psychologists from the beginning are still not resolved. First, exactly what is meant by the term intelligence? Second, how do we develop valid instruments for measuring it? We will address both questions. But first we need to review the psychometric concepts of reliability and validity. RELIABILTY AND VALIDITY RELIABILITY With regard to psychological tests, reliability refers to the consistency with which individuals respond to test stimuli. There are several ways of evaluating reliability. First, there is test-retest reliability-the extent to which an individual makes similar responses to the same test stimuli on repeated occasions. If each time we test a person we get different responses, the test data may not be very useful. In some instances, clients may remember on the second occasion their responses from the first time. Or they may develop a kind of "test-wiseness" from the first test that influences their scores the second time around. In still other cases, clients may rehearse between testing occasions or show practice effects. For all these reasons, another gauge of reliability is sometimes usedequivalent- forms reliability. Here, equivalent or parallel forms of a test are developed to avoid the preceding problems. Sometimes it is too expensive (in time or money) to develop an equivalent form or it is difficult or impossible to be sure the forms are really equivalent. Under such circumstances, or when retesting is not practical, assessing split-half reliability is a possibility. This means that a test is divided into halves (usually odd-numbered items versus even-numbered items), and participants’ scores on the two halves are compared. Split-half reliability also serves as one possible index of a test's internal consistency: Do the items on the test appear to be measuring the same thing? That is, are the items highly correlated with each other? The preferred method of assessing internal consistency reliability involves computing the aver-age of all possible split-half correlations for a given test. Another aspect of reliability, inter-rater or inter-judge reliability is the index of the degree of agreement between two or more raters or judgers as to the level of a trait that is present or the presence/absence of a features or diagnosis. VALIDITY In general, validity refers to the extent to which as assessment technique measures what it is supposed to measure. There are several forms of validity. Content Validity indicates the degree to which a group of test items actually covers the various aspects of the variable under study. Predictive Validity is demonstrated when test scores accurately predict some behavior or event in the future. Concurrent Validity involves relating today’s test scores to a concurrent criterion. Finally, Construct Validity is shown when test scores relate to other measures or behaviors in a logical, theoretically expected fashion. DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE Intelligence is a hypothetical construct; that is, intelligence is a concept that exists only in the way that psychologists and the public chose to define it. You cannot touch intelligence nor can you directly observe it. You can only observe the consequences of intelligence as they are reflected in the behavior and performance of individual. There is no universally accepted definition of intelligence. However, over the years, most have fallen into one of three classes: 1. Definitions that emphasize adjustment or adaptation to the environment-adaptability to new situations, the capacity to deal with a range of situations. 2. Definitions that focus on the ability to learn-on educability in the broad sense of the terms. 3. Definitions that emphasize abstract thinking the ability to use a wide range of symbols and concepts, the ability to use both verbal and numerical symbols. To illustrate a little of the long-standing diversity of definitions, consider the following examples: Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purpose-fully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment. (Wechsler, 1939) As a concept, intelligence refers to the whole class of cognitive behaviors which reflects an individual’s capacity to solve problems with insight, to adapt himself to new situations, to think abstractly, and to profit from his experience. (Robinson & Robinson, 1965) Intelligence is expressed in terms of adaptive, goal-directed behavior the subset of such behavior that is labeled "intelligent" seems to be determined in large part by cultural or societal norms. (Sternberg & Salter, 1982) Intelligence is a very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, and think has very few traits in common-they resemble the prototype different dimensions. Thus, there is no such thing as chariness - resemblance is an external fact and not an internal essence. There can be no process-based definition of intelligence, because it is not a unitary quality. It is a resemblance between two individuals, one real and the other prototypical. (Spearman) THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE There have been many theoretical approaches to the understanding of intelligence. These include psychometric theories, developmental theories, neuropsychological theories, and information-processing theories. We present only a brief overview of several leading theories here. FACTOR ANALYTICAL APPROACHES Spearman (1927), the father of factor analysis, posited the existence of a g factor (general intelligence) and S factors (specific intelligence). The elements that tests have in common are represented by g, whereas the elements unique to a given test are S factors. Basically, however, Spearman's message, buttressed by factor analytic evidence, was that intelligence is a broad, generalized entity. A number of individuals took issue with Spearman's contentions, including E. L. Thorndike and L. L. Thurstone. For example, Thurstone (1938) presented evidence (based on a factor analysis of 57 separate tests that had been administered to 240 participants) for a series of "group" factors rather than the almighty g factor. Ultimately, Thurstone described seven group factors which he labeled number, word fluency, verbal meaning, perceptual speed, space, reasoning, and memory. CATTELL’S THEORY The work of R. B. Cattell (1987) emphasizes the centrality of g. At the same time, Cattell has offered a tentative list of 17 primary ability concepts. He has described two important second-order factors that seem to represent a partitioning of Spearman's & into two components: fluid ability (the person's genetically based intellectual capacity) and crystallized ability (the capacities, tapped by the usual standardized intelligence test that can be attributed to culture-based learning). Essentially, Cattell's approach might be described as a hierarchical model of intelligence. GUILFORD’S THEORY: The views of Guilford (1967) were quite different from those of Cattell, Spearman, Thurstone, and most other psychometricians. Guilford proposed a Structure of the Intellect (S 01) model and then used a variety of statistical and factor analytic techniques to test it. Whereas other psychometric approaches generally attempted to infer a model, Guilford used the model as a guide in generating data. Guilford reasoned that the components of intelligence could be organized into three dimensions: operations, contents, and products. The operations are cognition, memory, divergent production (constructing logical alternatives), Convergent production (constructing logic-tight arguments), and evaluation. The content dimension involves the areas of information in which the operations are performed: figural, symbolic, semantic, and behavioral. Finally, when a particular mental operation is applied to a specific type of content, there are six possible products: units, classes, systems, relations, transformations, and implications. If we contemplate all possible combinations, we arrive at 120 separate intellectual abilities. Perhaps the most widely held reservation about Guilford's approach is that it is taxonomy or classification rather than a theory. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS:Traditionally, intelligence tests have been constructed to assess what we know or can do. Recent approaches, however, have begun to take on a highly cognitive or information- processing look. For example, some researchers try to describe a person's moment-bymoment attempts to solve a problem-from the moment a stimulus registers to the person's verbal or motor response.. This is a more dynamic view of intelligence than the older theories of mental components. Some of these researchers have focused on speed of information processing and others on strategies of processing. A number of levels of processing have been studied, including speed of processing, speed in making choices in response to stimuli, and speed with which individuals can extract various aspects of language from their long-term memory. But many problems and questions remain (Gardner, 1983). Is there a central processing mechanism for information? How do the processing elements change as the person develops? Are there general problem-solving skills or merely skills specific to certain ability areas? Perhaps time will tell. Gardner (1983) has described a theory of multiple intelligences. Human intellectual competence involves a set of problem-solving skills that enable the person to resolve problems or difficulties. Sometimes this results in the potential for acquiring new information. Gardner suggests that there is a family of six intelligences: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, and personal. For example, the personal refers both to access to one's own feeling life and to the ability to notice and make distinctions among other individuals. A major criticism of Gardner's theory is that some of his proposed "intelligences" may be better conceptualized as "talents" than as forms of intelligence. Nevertheless, Gardner's views have attracted a great deal of attention from psychologists and educators alike. To cite another example of a theory of multiple forms of intelligence, Sternberg (1985, 1991) has proposed a triarchic theory of intelligence. He maintains that people function on the basis of three aspects of intelligence: componential, experiential, and contextual. This approach deemphasizes speed and accuracy of performance. Instead, the emphasis is on planning responses and monitoring them. The componential aspect refers to analytical thinking; high scores would characterize the person who is a good test-taker. The experiential aspect relates to creative thinking and characterizes the person who can take separate elements of experience and combine them insightfully. Finally, the contextual aspect is seen in the person who is "street smart"-one who knows how to play the game and can successfully manipulate the environment. According to Sternberg, a person's performance is governed by these three aspects of intelligence. Other investigators are particularly interested in social competence as an aspect of intelligence (Sternberg & Wagner, 1986). However, whether all the foregoing can account for individual differences or is just a theory of cognition is debatable. Although Spearman, Thurstone, and others may seem to have given way to Cattell, Guilford, Gardner, or Sternberg, clinicians' day-to-day use of tests suggests that they have not really outgrown the g factor of Spearman or the group factors of Thurstone. The whole notion of a single IQ score that can represent the individual's intelligence strongly implies that we are trying to discover how much g the person has. At the same time, however, most current intelligence tests are composed of subtests, so that the total IQ represents some average of subtest scores. This implies that, to some extent at least, we have also accepted Turnstone’s group factors. We seem to want to identify and quantify how much intelligence the person has, yet we cannot escape the belief that intelligence is somehow patterned-that two people may have the same overall IQ score and still differ in specific abilities. Thus, it would appear that practicing clinicians think more in line with Spearman or Thurstone and are as yet little affected by the recent information processing developments. HISTORY OF INTELLIGENCE TESTING Two important historical developments in the latter half of the nineteenth century greatly influenced the ultimate introduction of measures of intelligence (Thorndike, 1997). First, compulsory education in the United States and other countries resulted in a very diverse student body. Many students came from "uneducated" families or families that did not speak the native tongue. As a result, the failure rate inschools shot up dramatically. In order to preserve resources, there was pressure to identify those most likely to succeed in school. Second, psychological scientists believed, and ultimately demonstrated, that mental abilities could be measured. Although early attempts focused primarily on measures of sensory acuity and reaction time (for example, Francis Galton, James McKeen Cattell), the groundwork was laid in place. Alfred Binet and his collaborator, Theodore Simon, became leaders in the intelligence testing movement when they devised the Binet-Simon test to identify individual differences in mental functioning. Binet's original purpose was to develop an objective method of identifying those truly lacking in academic ability (as opposed to those with behavior problems). Like others of the day, Binet and Simon regarded intelligence as a "faculty" that was inherited, although they also spoke of it as affected by training and opportunity. With the interest in quantifying intellectual performance and with the continuing growth of compulsory education in Europe and North America, intelligence testing became firmly entrenched (Thorndike, 1997). Institutions such as schools, industries, military forces, and governments were, by their nature, interested in individual differences (such as levels of intelligence) that might affect performance in those settings; therefore, intelligence testing prospered (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994).For many years, the critical importance and widespread use of intelligence tests went largely unchallenged. However, by the end of the 1960s, everyone seemed to be attacking the validity of these tests. Basically, the argument was that such tests discriminate through the inclusion of unfair items. As a result of a lengthy civil rights suit (Larvy P v. Wilson Riles) begun in 1971, the California State Board of Education in 1975 imposed a moratorium on the use of intelligence tests to assess disabilities in African Americans. The court held that IQ testing is prejudicial to African American children and tends to place them, without real justification, in allegedly stigmatizing programs for cognitively impaired individuals. Others (for example, N. Lambert, 1981) have disputed the court's judgment, however. Some African Americans contemplated a court challenge of the ruling, claiming it assumed that African Americans would do poorly on the tests. Still others argued that IQ testing is not a social evil but the principal means by which we can right the wrongs imposed upon minorities by a devastating environment. The most widely used intelligence tests in the United States are those originally developed by psychologist David Wechsler during the 1940’s and 1950’s.building on existing tests of the day— including the Standford-Binet the Army Alpha and Beta tests, and the Bellevue intelligence scale— Wechsler first developed an individual test in intelligence for adults. Followed by a similarly structured test for school-age children to age 16, and finally, a test for pre-school-age children. These tests were influenced by Wechsler’s belief that there is a total or global level of intellectual capacity that can be measured-thus; these tests yield a score that represents the person’s overall intelligence. the tests developed by Wechsler also reflect the geographic metaphor of intelligence described by Sternberg(1990).Wechsler’s tests more than any others have shaped psychologist’s perception of intellectual functioning as comprised of separate but related verbal and performance(nonverbal abilities). Wechsler (1939) emphasized that an IQ test measures functional intelligence, not intelligence it self. Functional intelligence is influenced by nonintellectual factors including motivation, configuration of specific abilities, and emotional adjustment. According to Wechsler score on an IQ test is a reflection of what one has learned, and which is a function of the opportunities to which one has been exposed and one’s ability to take advantage of those opportunities. The subsets on Wechsler’s test represent samples of behavior but they are not exhaustive. The need for continued adaptation of intelligence testing is represented in the history of the Wechsler scales, because all three versions have undergone substantial revisions since their inception and even after Wechsler’s death. These changes have taken two forms: changes in the items of the tests to make them more current and appropriate for new generations, and the testing of new normative samples to provide up-to-date sources for normative comparison in generating scores. CONCLUSION There is little question that intelligence tests have been misused at times in ways that have penalized minorities. There is also little doubt that some tests have contained certain items that have adversely affected the performance of some minorities. We should, therefore, do everything we can to develop better tests and to administer and interpret them in a sensitive fashion. However, banning tests seems an inappropriate cure that may ultimately harm the very people who need help.
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Born with personality is an accident but dying as a personality is an achievement. |
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Intelligence Tests
DEFINITION
“Intelligence tests are psychological tests that are designed to measure a variety of mental functions, such as reasoning, comprehension, and judgment”. PURPOSE The goal of intelligence tests is to obtain an idea of the person's intellectual potential. The tests center around a set of stimuli designed to yield a score based on the test maker's model of what makes up intelligence. Intelligence tests are often given as a part of a battery of tests. PRECAUTIONS WITH INTELLIGENCE TESTS There are many different types of intelligence tests and they all do not measure the same abilities. Although the tests often have aspects that are related with each other, one should not expect that scores from one intelligence test, that measures a single factor, will be similar to scores on another intelligence test that measures a variety of factors. Also, when determining whether or not to use an intelligence test, a person should make sure that the test has been adequately developed and has solid research to show its reliability and validity. Additionally, psychometric testing requires a clinically trained examiner. Therefore, the test should only be administered and interpreted by a trained professional. This is especially true in case of different tests that measure different abilities in individuals. A person who is well trained in the administration of one test may or may not be as well trained in the administration of another test. CRITICISM OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS A central criticism of intelligence tests is that psychologists and educators use these tests to distribute the limited resources of our society. These test results are used to provide rewards such as special classes for gifted students, admission to college, and employment. Those who do not qualify for these resources based on intelligence test scores may feel angry as if the tests are denying them opportunities for success. Unfortunately, intelligence test scores have not only become associated with a person's ability to perform certain tasks, but with self-worth. Many people are under the false assumption that intelligence tests measure a person's inborn or biological intelligence. Intelligence tests are based on an individual's interaction with the environment and never exclusively measure inborn intelligence. Intelligence tests have been associated with categorizing and stereotyping people. Additionally, knowledge of one's performance on an intelligence test may affect a person's aspirations and motivation to obtain goals. Intelligence tests can be culturally biased against certain groups. COMMON PROCEDURES When taking an intelligence test, a person can expect to do a variety of tasks. These tasks may include having to answer questions that are asked verbally, doing mathematical problems, and doing a variety of tasks that require eye-hand coordination. Some tasks may be timed and require the person to work as quickly as possibleTypically, most questions and tasks start out easy and progressively get more difficult. It is unusual for anyone to know the answer to all of the questions or be able to complete all of the tasks. If a person is unsure of an answer, guessing is usually allowed. The person's raw scores on an intelligence test are typically converted to standard scores. The standard scores allow the examiner to compare the individual's score to other people who have taken the test. Additionally, by converting raw scores to standard scores the examiner has uniform scores and can more easily compare an individual's performance on one test with the individual's performance on another test. Depending on the intelligence test that is used, a variety of scores can be obtained. Most intelligence tests generate an overall intelligence quotient or IQ. As previously noted, it is valuable to know how a person performs on the various tasks that make up the test. This can influence the interpretation of the test and what the IQ means. The average of score for most intelligence tests is 100. ADVANTAGES In general, intelligence tests measure a wide variety of human behaviors better than any other measure that has been developed. They allow professionals to have a uniform way of comparing a person's performance with that of other people who are similar in age. These tests also provide information on cultural and biological differences among people. Intelligence tests are excellent predictors of academic achievement and provide an outline of a person's mental strengths and weaknesses. Many times the scores have revealed talents in many people, which have led to an improvement in their educational opportunities. Teachers, parents, and psychologists are able to devise individual curricula that match a person's level of development and expectations. DISADVANTAGES Some researchers argue that intelligence tests have serious shortcomings. For example, many intelligence tests produce a single intelligence score. This single score is often inadequate in explaining the multidimensional aspects of intelligence. Another problem with a single score is the fact that individuals with similar intelligence test scores can vary greatly in their expression of these talents. It is important to know the person's performance on the various subtests that make up the overall intelligence test score. Knowing the performance on these various scales can influence the understanding of a person's abilities and how these abilities are expressed. For example, two people have identical scores on intelligence tests. Although both people have the same test score, one person may have obtained the score because of strong verbal skills while the other may have obtained the score because of strong skills in perceiving and organizing various tasks. Furthermore, intelligence tests only measure a sample of behaviors or situations in which intelligent behavior is revealed. For instance, some intelligence tests do not measure a person's everyday functioning, social knowledge, mechanical skills, and/or creativity. Along with this, the formats of many intelligence tests do not capture the complexity and immediacy of real-life situations. Therefore, intelligence tests have been criticized for their limited ability to predict non-test or nonacademic intellectual abilities. Since intelligence test scores can be influenced by a variety of different experiences and behaviors, they should not be considered a perfect indicator of a person's intellectual potential.
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Born with personality is an accident but dying as a personality is an achievement. |
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Commonly Used Intelligence Tests
COMMONLY USED INTELLIGENCE TESTS
The three most commonly used intelligence tests are: Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales Wechsler-Adult Intelligence Scale Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children CONCEPTS OF IQ & DEVIATION IQ Before we go into the details of the three tests, let us first understand the two basic concepts that are employed in the tests. These are the concepts of IQ & Deviation IQ THE INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (IQ or RATIO IQ) Binet regarded the mental age (MA) as an index of mental performance. Each item successfully passed on a Binet test signified a certain number of months' credit. At the conclusion of the test, the items passed were added up and the MA emerged. Thus, there was nothing magical about an MA: all it meant was the X numbers of items has been passed. Subsequently, Stern (1938) developed the concept of intelligence quotient (1Q) to circumvent several problems that had arisen in using the difference between the chronological age (CA) and the MA to express deviance. At first glance, two children, one with an MA of 4 years and a CA of 5 years and another with an MA of 14 years and a CA of 15 years, would seem to be equally deficient. However, this is not the case, because intellectual growth is much more rapid at younger age levels. Therefore, even though there is only a one-year discrepancy between the MA and the CA of both children, the younger child is actually more deviant than the older one. The IQ notion enables us to perform the following computation: IQ=MA/CA x 100 As a result, we find that our 15-year-old has an IQ of 93, whereas the 5-year-old has an IQ of 80.These differing scores better reflect the reality of more rapid intellectual growth at younger ages. It should be noted that in measuring intelligence, we cannot be sure that we are dealing with equalinterval measurement. We cannot be sure that an IQ of 50 is really twice as much as an IQ of 25 or that our scale has an absolute zero point. We cannot add and subtract IQs. All we can do is state that a person with an IQ of 50 is brighter than a person with an IQ of 25. All of this should serve to remind us that IQs and MAs are merely scores. DEVIATION IQ: Although initially appealing, the ratio IQ is significantly limited in its application to older age groups. The reason is that a consistent (even if very high) mental age (MA) score accompanied by an increasing chronological age (CA) score will result in a lower IQ. Thus, it may appear that IQ has decreased over time when, in fact, one's intellectual ability has been maintained. To deal with this problem, Wechsler introduced the concept of deviation IQ. The assumption is made that intelligence is normally distributed throughout the population. A deviation IQ then involves a comparison of an individual's performance on an IQ test with that of his or her age peers. Thus, the same IQ score has a similar meaning, even if two individuals are markedly different in age (for example, a 22-year-old versus an 80-year-old). In both cases, an IQ of 100 indicates an average level of intellectual ability for that age group. THE CLINICAL ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE In this section, we will briefly describe several of the most frequently used intelligence tests for children and adults. THE STANDFORD-BINET SCALE The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Fourth Edition (SB: FE) is a standardized test that measures intelligence and cognitive abilities in children and adults, from age two through mature adulthood. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale has a rich history. It is a descendant of the Binet-Simon scale which was developed in 1905 and became the first intelligence test. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale was developed in 1916 and was revised in 1937, 1960, and 1986. The present edition was published in 1986, and is called the Stanford-Binet Fourth Edition, or SB-4. PURPOSE The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale was originally developed to help place children in appropriate educational settings. It can help determine the level of intellectual and cognitive functioning in preschoolers, children, adolescents and adults, and assist in the diagnosis of a learning disability, developmental delay, mental retardation, or giftedness. It is used to provide educational planning and placement, neuropsychological assessment, and research. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is generally administered in a school or clinical setting. DESCRIPTION The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is comprised of four cognitive area scores which together determine the composite score and factor scores. The test consists of 15 subtests, which are grouped into the four area scores. These area scores include: Verbal Reasoning, Abstract/Visual Reasoning, Quantitative Reasoning, and Short-Term Memory. The composite score is considered to be what the authors call the best estimate of "g" or "general reasoning ability" and is the sum of all of subtest scores. General reasoning ability or "g" is considered to represent a person's ability to solve novel problems. The composite score is a global estimate of a person's intellectual functioning. The following is a review of the specific cognitive abilities that the four area scores measure. 1. The Verbal Reasoning area score measures verbal knowledge and understanding obtained from the school and home learning environment and reflects the ability to apply verbal skills to new situations. Examples of subtests comprising this factor measure skills which include: word knowledge, social judgment and awareness, ability to isolate the inappropriate feature in visual material and social intelligence, and the ability to differentiate essential from non-essential detail. 2. The Abstract/Visual Reasoning area score examines the ability to interpret and perform mathematic operations, the ability to visualize patterns, visual/motor skills, and problem-solving skills through the use of reasoning. An example of a subtest which determines the Abstract/Visual Reasoning score is atimed test that involves tasks such as completing a basic puzzle and replicating black and white cube designs. 3. The Quantitative Reasoning area score measures: numerical reasoning, concentration, and knowledge and application of numerical concepts. The Quantitative Reasoning area is combined with the Abstract/Visual Reasoning area score to create an Abstract/Visual Reasoning Factor Score. 4. The Short-Term Memory score measures concentration skills, short-term memory, and sequencing skills. Subtests comprising this area score measure visual short-term memory and auditory short term memory involving both sentences and number sequences. In one subtest that measures visual short-term memory, the participant is presented with pictures of a bead design, and asked to replicate it from memory. Each subtest is composed of items at varying levels of difficulty, from age 2 to adulthood. SB-4 uses an adaptive testing procedure called multistage testing. The examiner first gives the Vocabulary Test to determine the entry point (that is, which item to start with) for each remaining subtest. This initial estimate of ability provides a more appropriate entry or starting point on subsequent subtests, and is likely to result in more efficient testing, than relying exclusively on chronological age as a guide for a starting point. Thus, not all examinees of the same age are given the same items. THE WECHSLER SCALES David Wechsler used a deviation IQ concept. This approach, as we have seen, assumes that intelligence is normally distributed and compares individuals with their age peers. In effect, it compares the performance of a 15-year-old with that of other 15-year-olds. This method statistically establishes an IQ of 100 as the mean for each age group. As a result, an IQ of 100 means the same thing for any person, regardless of the person's age. BACKGROUND OF WAIS Earlier versions of the Stanford-Binet had a number of disadvantages that led David Wechsler in 1939 to develop the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale. This was a test designed for adults – one that would offer items whose content was more appropriate for and more motivating to adults than the school-oriented Binet. In contrast to the Stanford-Binet, whose items were arranged in age levels, the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale grouped its items into subtests. For example, all arithmetic items were put into one subtest and arranged in order of increasing difficulty. In addition, there was a Performance Scale and a Verbal Scale (consisting of five and six subtests, respectively). A separate IQ for each scale could be calculated, along with a Full Scale IQ. The systematic inclusion of performance items helped remedy the overemphasis on verbal skills that limited the utility of the earlier Stanford-Binet with special populations THE WAIS-III DESCRIPTION A new version of the Wechsler Bellevue, known as the Wechsler Adult Intelligent Scale (WAIS), first appeared in 1955. A revised edition (WAIS-R) was published in 1981. The most recent version, the Wechsler Adult Intelligent Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III), was introduced in 1997. It is an individually administered measure of intelligence, intended for adults aged 16–89. PURPOSE The WAIS-III is intended to measure human intelligence reflected in both verbal and performance abilities. Besides being utilized as an intelligence assessment, the WAIS-III is used in neuropsychological evaluation, specifically with regard to brain dysfunction. Large differences in verbal and nonverbal intelligence may indicate specific types of brain damage. The WAIS-III is also administered for diagnostic purposes. Intelligence quotient (IQ) scores reported by the WAIS-III can be used as part of the diagnostic criteria for mental retardation, specific learning disabilities, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The WAIS elicits three intelligence quotient scores, based on an average of 100, as well as subtest and index scores. WAIS subtests measure specific verbal abilities and specific performance abilities. The WAIS elicits an overall intelligence quotient, called the full-scale IQ, as well as a verbal IQ and a performance IQ. The three IQ scores are standardized in such a way that the scores have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. The WAIS also elicits four indices, each based on a different set of subtests: verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed. The verbal and performance IQ scores are based on scores on the 14 subtests. The full-scale IQ is based on scores on all of the subtests and is a reflection of both verbal IQ and performance IQ. It is considered the single most reliable and valid score elicited by the WAIS. However, when an examinee's verbal and performance IQ scores differ significantly, the full-scale IQ should be interpreted cautiously. Following are 14 WAIS-Ill subtests. Seven are the verbal subsets and 7 are the performance tests: THE VERBAL IQ is derived from scores on seven of the subtests: information, digit span, vocabulary, arithmetic, comprehension, similarities, and letter-number sequencing. Letter-number sequencing is a new subtest added to the most recent edition of the WAIS (WAIS-III). The information subtest is a test of general knowledge, including questions about geography and literature. The digit span subtest requires test takers to repeat strings of digits. The vocabulary and arithmetic subtests are general measures of a person's vocabulary and arithmetic skills. The comprehension subtest requires test takers to solve practical problems and explain the meaning of proverbs. The similarities subtest requires test takers to indicate the similarities between pairs of things. The letter-number sequencing subtest involves ordering numbers and letters presented in an unordered sequence. Scores on the verbal subtests are based primarily on correct answers. THE PERFORMANCE IQ is derived from scores on the remaining seven subtests: picture completion, picture arrangement, block design, object assembly, digit symbol, matrix reasoning, and symbol search. Matrix reasoning and symbol search are new subtests and were added to the most recent edition of the WAIS (WAIS-III). In the picture completion subtest, the test taker is required to complete pictures with missing elements. The picture arrangement subtest entails arranging pictures in order to tell a story. The block design subtest requires test takers to use blocks to make specific designs. The object assembly subtest requires people to assemble pieces in such a way that a whole object is built. In the digit symbol subtest, digits and symbols are presented as pairs and test takers then must pair additional digits and symbols. The matrix reasoning subtest requires test takers to identify geometric shapes. The symbol search subtest requires examinees to match symbols appearing in different groups. Scores on the performance subtests are based on both response speed and correct answers. VERBAL SUBTESTS PERFORMANCE SUBTESTS Vocabulary Picture completion Similarities Digital Symbol-Coding Arithmetic Block Design Digit Span Picture Arrangement Information Matrix Reasoning Comprehension Symbol Search Letter-Number Sequencing Object Assembly PRECAUTIONS The WAIS III is not considered adequate measure of extremely high and low intelligence (IQ scores below 40 and above 160). The nature of the scoring process does not allow for scores outside of this range for test takers at particular ages. Wechsler himself was even more conservative, stressing that his scales were not appropriate for people with an IQ below 70 or above 130. Also, when administering the WAIS to people at extreme ends of the age range (below 20 years of age or above 70), caution should be used when interpreting scores. The age range for the WAIS III overlaps with that of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) for people between 16 and 17 years of age, and it is suggested that the WISC provides a better measure for this age range. Administration and scoring of the WAIS require an active test administrator who must interact with the test taker and must know test protocol and specifications. WAIS administrators must receive proper training and be aware of all test guidelines. THE WISC-III The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) was first developed in 1949 and revised in 1974 (WISC-R) The latest version, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition WISC-III), was published in 1991. It is an individually administered measure of intelligence intended for children aged six years to 16 years and 11 months. PURPOSES The WISC is designed to measure human intelligence as reflected in both verbal and nonverbal (performance) abilities. The WISC is used in schools as part of placement evaluations for programs for gifted children and for children who are developmentally disabled. In addition to its uses in intelligence assessment, the WISC is used in neuropsychological evaluation, specifically with regard to brain dysfunction. Large differences in verbal and nonverbal intelligence may indicate specific types of brain damage. The WISC is also used for other diagnostic purposes. IQ scores reported by the WISC can be used as part of the diagnostic criteria for mental retardation and specific learning disabilities. The test may also serve to better evaluate children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and other behavior disorders. WISC III scores yield an overall intelligence quotient, called the full scale IQ, as well as a verbal IQ and a performance IQ. The three IQ scores are standardized in such a way that a score of 100 is considered average and serves as a benchmark for higher and lower scores. Verbal and performance IQ scores are based on scores on the 13 subtests. The full scale IQ is derived from the child's scores on all of the subtests. It reflects both verbal IQ and performance IQ and is considered the single most reliable and valid score obtained by the WISC. When a child's verbal and performance IQ scores are far apart, however, the full scale IQ should be interpreted cautiously. VERBAL IQ The child's verbal IQ score is derived from scores on six of the subtests: information, digit span, vocabulary, arithmetic, comprehension, and similarities. The information subtest is a test of general knowledge, including questions about geography and literature. The digit span subtest requires the child to repeat strings of digits recited by the examiner. The vocabulary and arithmetic subtests are general measures of the child's vocabulary and arithmetic skills. The comprehension subtest asks the child to solve practical problems and explain the meaning of simple proverbs. The similarities subtest asks the child to describe the similarities between pairs of items, for example that apples and oranges are both fruits. PERFORMANCE IQ The child's performance IQ is derived from scores on the remaining seven subtests: picture completion, picture arrangement, block design, object assembly, coding, mazes, and symbol search. In the picture completion subtest, the child is asked to complete pictures with missing elements. The picture arrangement subtest entails arranging pictures in order to tell a story. The block design subtest requires the child to use blocks to make specific designs. The object assembly subtest asks the child to put together pieces in such a way as to construct an entire object. In the coding subtest, the child makes pairs from a series of shapes or numbers. The mazes subtest asks the child to solve maze puzzles of increasing difficulty. The symbol search subtest requires the child to match symbols that appear in different groups. Scores on the performance subtests are based on both the speed of response and the number of correct answers.
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Born with personality is an accident but dying as a personality is an achievement. |
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The Clinical Use Of Intelligence Tests
THE CLINICAL USE OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS
It is time to take a closer look at how these tests are used in the clinical setting. THE ESTIMATION OF GENERAL INTELLECTUAL LEVEL The most obvious use of an intelligence test is as a means for arriving at an estimate of the patient's general intellectual level. Often the goal is the determination of how much general intelligence “g” a given person possesses. Often, the question is stated a bit differently, for example, what is the patient's intellectual potential? Posing the question in this way suggests that perhaps the person is not functioning as well as his or her potential would indicate. The potential can form a baseline against which to measure current achievements, thus providing information about the patient's current level of functioning. PREDICTION OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS There are data that demonstrate a relationship between intelligence test scores and school success. To the extent that intelligence should logically reflect the capacity to do well in school, we are justified in expecting intelligence tests to predict school success. Not everyone would equate intelligence with scholastic aptitude, but the fact remains that a major function of intelligence tests is to predict schoolperformance. One must remember, however, that intelligence and academic success are not conceptually identical. THE APPRAISAL OF STYLE The clinical psychologists’ interest is not only in the client’s success or failure on particular test items but also how that success or failure occurs. One of the major values of individual intelligence tests is that they permit us to observe the client or patient at work. Such observations can help us greatly in interpreting an IQ. For example, did this child do as well as possible? Was there failure-avoidance? Did the child struggle with most items, or was there easy success? Was the child unmotivated, and could this have detracted from the child's performance? Such questions and the ensuing interpretations breathe life into an otherwise inert IQ score.
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Born with personality is an accident but dying as a personality is an achievement. |
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Stereotypes
Stereotypes
Definition: A stereotype is “...a fixed, over generalised belief about a particular group or class of people.” (Cardwell, 1996). For example, a “hells angel” biker dresses in leather. One advantage of a stereotype is that it enables us to respond rapidly to situations because we may have had had a similar experience before. One disadvantage is that it makes us ignore differences between individuals; therefore we think things about people that might not be true (i.e. make generalisations). The use of stereotypes is a major way in which we simplify our social world; since they reduce the amount of processing (i.e. thinking) we have to do when we meet a new person. By stereotyping we infer that a person has a whole range of characteristics and abilities that we assume all members of that group have. Stereotypes lead to social categorisation, which is one of the reasons for prejudice attitudes (i.e. “them” and “us” mentality) which leads to ingroups and outgroups. Most stereotypes probably tend to convey a negative impression. Positive examples would include judges (the phrase “sober as a judge” would suggest this is a stereotype with a very respectable set of characteristics), overweight people (who are often seen as “jolly”) and television newsreaders (usually seen as highly dependable, respectable and impartial). Negative stereotypes seem far more common, however. By stereotyping we infer that a person has a whole range of characteristics and abilities that we assume all members of that group have. Stereotypes lead to social categorisation, which is one of the reasons for prejudice attitudes (i.e. “them” and “us” mentality) which leads to ingroups and outgroups. Most stereotypes probably tend to convey a negative impression. Positive examples would include judges (the phrase “sober as a judge” would suggest this is a stereotype with a very respectable set of characteristics), overweight people (who are often seen as “jolly”) and television newsreaders (usually seen as highly dependable, respectable and impartial). Negative stereotypes seem far more common, however. Racial Stereotypes Researchers have found that stereotypes exist of different races, cultures or ethnic groups. Although the terms race, culture and ethnic groups have different meanings, we shall take them to mean roughly the same thing at the moment. The most famous study of racial stereotyping was published by Katz and Braly in 1933 when they reported the results of a questionnaire completed by students at Princeton University in the USA. They found that students held clear, negative stereotypes – few students expressed any difficulty in responding to the questionnaire. Most students at that time would have been white Americans and the pictures of other ethnic groups included Jews as shrewd and mercenary, Japanese as shrewd and sly, Negroes as lazy and happy-go-lucky and Americans as industrious and intelligent. Not surprisingly, racial stereotypes always seem to favour the race of the holder and belittle other races. It is probably true to say that every ethnic group has racial stereotypes of other groups; some psychologists argue that it is a “natural” aspect of human behaviour, which can be seen to benefit each group because it helps in the long-run to identify with one’s own ethnic group and so find protection and promote the safety and success of the group. There is no evidence for this view, however, and many writers argue that it is merely a way of justifying racist attitudes and behaviours. Study: Katz and Braly (1933) – Racial Stereotyping Aim: To investigate stereotypical attitudes of Americans towards different races. Method: Questionnaire method was used to investigate stereotypes. American university students were given a list of nationalities and ethic groups (e.g. Irish, Germans etc.), and a list of 84 personality traits. They were asked to pick out five or six traits which they thought were typical of each group. Results: There was considerable agreement in the traits selected. White Americans, for example, were seen as industrious, progressive and ambitious. African Americans were seen as lazy, ignorant and musical. Participants were quite ready to rate ethnic groups with whom they had no personal contact. Conclusion: Ethnic stereotypes are widespread, and shared by members of a particular social group. Katz and Braly repeated their research in 1951 and 1967. The results can be seen in the table below. Stereotyping Evaluation The Katz and Braly studies were done in the 1930’s and it can be argued that cultures have changed since then and we are much less likely to hold these stereotypes. Later studies conducted in 1951 and 1967 found changes in the stereotypes and the extent to which they are held. In general, stereotypes in the later study tended to be more positive but the belief that particular ethnic groups held particular characteristics still existed. Also, it should be noted that this study has relied entirely on verbal reports and is therefore extremely low in ecological validity. Just because participants in a study will trot out stereotypes when asked does not mean to say that people go around acting on them. People do not necessarily behave as though the stereotypes are true.
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Psychologists
Psychologists and Their Contributions
1. Frances Galton: Maintained that personality and ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance(human traits are inherited) 2. Charles Darwin: Theory of evolution, survival of the fittest-origin of the species 3. William Wundt: introspection-psychology became the scientific study of conscious experience (rather than science) 4. John Watson: Founder of behaviorism- Did the study of generalization 5. Little Albert: Watson’s study on the generalization of fear. Conditioning subject to be afraid 6. Alfred Adler: Neo Freudian, believed that childhood social not sexual tensions are crucial for personality formation 7. Carl Jung: People had conscious and unconscious awareness-two layers of unconscious archetypespersonal/ collective 8. Gordon Allport: Three levels of traits: 1. Cardinal trait-it is the dominant trait that characterizes your life; 2.Central trait-one common to all people; 3. Secondary trait- it surfaces in some situations and not in others 9. Albert Ellis: Rational Emotive Therapy-focuses on altering client’s patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behaviour and emotions 10. Albert Maslow: Hierarchy of needs-Needs at the lower level dominate an individual’s motivation as long as they are unsatisfied. Once these needs are adequately met, the higher needs occupy the individual’s attention. 11. Carl Rogers: Humanistic psychology-the theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth. 12. B.F. Skinner: Operant conditioning-techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism’s behaviour in order to observe the effects of subsequent behaviour. Also Skinner Box. 13. Ivan Pavlov: Classical conditioning-An unconditional stimulus naturally elicits a reflexive behaviour called an unconditional response. But with repeated pairings with a neutral stimulus, the neutral stimulus will elicit the response. Dog Salivation etc. 14. Noam Chomsky: Disagreed with Skinner and said there an infinite number of sentences in a language. He said that humans have an inborn native ability to develop language. 15. Jean Piaget: Four-stage theory of cognitive development. 1. Sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, 4. formal operational He said that two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation & accommodation 16. Erik Erikson: People evolve through 8 stages over the life span. Each stage marked by psychological crisis that involves confronting “who am I” 17. Lawrence Kohlberg: His theory states there are 3 levels of moral reasoning and each level can be divided into 2 stages. 1. Pre-conventional, 2. conventional, 3.post-conventional. His theory focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behaviour. 18. Carol Gilligan: She maintained that Kolbergs work was developed only observing boys and overlooked potential differences between the habitual moral judgments of men and women 19. James Lange Theory: It asserts that the perception of emotion is our awareness of our physiological response to emotion arousing stimuli. e.g. sight of coming car-pounding heart-fear 20. Cannon-Bard Theory: An emotion-arousing stimulus triggers cognitive body responses simultaneously. E.g. arousal and emotion are simultaneous 21. Phineas Gage: First person to have a frontal lobotomy. Gave psychology information on part of the brain that is involved with emotions reasoning etc. 22. Hans Eysenck: Personality is determined to a large extent by genes. He used the terms Extroversion/Introversion 23. S. Schacter: To experience emotions 1. must be physically aroused 2. must cognitively label arousal (know the emotion before you experience it) 24. Mary Cover Jones: Systemic desensitization 25. Benjamin Whorf: His hypothesis is that language determines the way we think 26. Robert Sternberg: Triarchic theory of intelligence. 1. academic problem-solving intelligence 2. practical intelligence 3. creative intelligence 27. Howard Gardner: Theory of multiple intelligences 28. Albert Bandura: Observational Learning-it allows you to profit immediately from the mistakes and successes of others. His experiment had adult models punching BoBo dolls and then observed children whom watched this exhibit many of the same behaviours. 29. E.L. Thorndike: Law of effect-(the relationship between behaviour and its consequences) the principle that behaviour followed by favourable consequences becomes more likely. Behaviour followed by less likely consequences becomes less likely 30. Alfred Binet: general I.Q. tests. A Frenchman designed a test that would identify slow learners in need of remedial help. It was not that valuable in America as it was too culture bound. 31. Lewis Term an: Revised Binet’s I.Q. test and established norms for American children 32. David Weschler: he established an intelligence test especially for adults. It became the WAIS, Weschler Intelligence Test for Adults. 33. Charles Spearman: He found that specific mental talents were highly correlated. He concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled “g”, for general ability 34. H. Rorschach: He developed one of the first projective tests, the Inkblot test. The subject reads the inkblots and projects to the observer aspects of their personality. It uses 10 standarized inkblots 35. Philip Zimbardo: Conducted the famous Stanford Prison experiment. It was conducted to study the power of social roles to influence people’s behaviour. It proved people’s behaviour depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play. 36. David Rosenhan: He with a number of people from different walks of life conducted a hospital experiment to test the diagnosis of hospitals make on new patients. He also wanted to see the impact on behaviour on being a patient. He proved that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, your care would not be very good in a mental hospital setting. 37. Simon Asch: Study on conformity. His experiment had a subject unaware of his situation, test to see if he would conform if all the members of the group gave an incorrect answer. 38. Stanley Milgram: Conducted a study on obedience when he had a subject shock a patient to the extent that they would be seriously injuring the patient. 39. Kurt Lewin: A German refugee who escaped Nazi oppression. He designed an experiment to investigate the effects of different leadership styles on group functions. He wanted to find out if people were more productive under 3 different leadership styles. 1. autocratic 2. laizssez-faire 3. democratic. This is the study when he had the children do activities under the 3 conditions. The democratic style proved to be the most productive as was expected. 40. Harry Harlow: Studied theory of attachment in infant Rhesus monkeys. 41. William Sheldon: The theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment. Endomorphic- (large), Mesomorphic- (average), Ectomorphic- (skinny) 42. Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytical theory that focuses on the unconscious- Id-Ego-Superego 43. Karen Horney: Critical of Freud’s theories. She said that personality is continually mold by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts. 44. Mary Cover Jones: Systemic desensitization. She maintained that fear could be unlearned. We could teach Little Albert, to be unafraid of rabbits. 45. Martin Seligman: Learned helplessness is the giving up reaction, the quitting response that follows from the belief that whatever you do does not matter. The woman in Schindler’s List who explains to Schindler that no matter what she does she receives the same punishment 46. H. Ebbinghas: The first to conduct scientific studies on forgetting: first, a rapid loss followed by a gradual declining rate of loss. 47. Hubel/Wisel: Did a study of the activities of neurons in the visual cortex. 48. Young-Helmholz-Trichromatic theory of colour vision: said 3 types of colour receptors in the eye 49. Clark Hull-Drive theory: It maintains that the goal of all motivated behaviour is the reduction or alleviation of a drive state. It is the mechanism through which reinforcement operates. 50. Walter B. Cannon: He believed that that gastric activity in as empty stomach was the sole basis for hunger. Did an experiment by inserting balloon in subjects stomach 51. Broca’s Area: The left frontal lobe that directs muscle movement involved in speech. He did his studies with a subject who could only speak one word, “Tan”. The person damaged in this area has speech that makes sense but has difficulty speaking 52. Wernicke’s Area: An area of the left temporal lobe involved language understanding. The person damaged in this area uses correct words but they do not make sense. 53. Ernst Weber: He pioneered the first study on JND- (just noticeable difference). It became Weber’s law; the JND between stimuli is a constant fraction of the intensity of the standard stimulus. E.g. the bigger or more intense the standard stimulus, the larger the increment needed to get a noticeable difference. Room with 10 candles vs. one with 30 candles. 54. Fechner’s law: It states that the magnitude of a sensory experience is proportional to the number of JND’s that the stimulus causing the experiences above absolute threshold. 55. Kubler-Ross: Her theory proposes that the terminally ill pass through a sequence of 5 stages. 1. denial, 2. anger/resentment, 3. bargaining with God, 4. depression, 5. Acceptance 56. Robert Zajonc: Mere exposure effect It is possible to have preferences without inferences and to feel without knowing why. 57. Henry Murray: he stated that the need to achieve varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach success and evaluate their own performances. He devised the TAT-Thematic Appreciation Test along with Christiana D. Morgan. Subjects are asked to generate stories in response to ambiguous pictures. e.g. the person resting against the park bench. 58. David McClelland: He devised a way to measure H. Murray’s theory “the need to achieve that varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach success and evaluate their own performances”. He is credited with developing the scoring system for the TAT's use in assessing achievement motivation, not for the TAT itself. 59. Paul Ekman: The theory that facial expressions are universal.
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Quick Review Psychology Notes
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