Freud Review

Life of Freud
Oldest of 8 children born in Moravia (Czech Republic); Jewish family
Medical school in Vienna; neurology
Showed male eels had testes
New characteristics of neurons in fish
First gold-chloride technique of staining nerve tissue
Cocaine could be used as anesthetic
Private practice in Vienna for treatment of nervous disorders (Berggasse)
Had 3 girls and 3 boys
Persuaded to leave Vienna after Nazi invasion-1938 b/c of Jewish oppression
Considered all religion an illusion used by civilization to cope w/ feelings of infantile helplessness
Died from cancer of mouth and jaw (from cigar smoking) on Sept. 23, 1939

View of the Person
Human nature dominated by instinctual, unconscious, and irrational forces
Human is selfish; at war w/ self both internally and externally; aggressive and sexual
No free will; therefore incapable of dealing with own psychological problems
People turn to religion in hope of gaining control over their urges
Used self-analysis in order to understand others behavior in terms of himself
Most important book = The Interpretation of Dreams
Another book = Psychopathology of Everyday Life
Dreams allow people to experience wish fulfillments
Psychological Determinism = a belief that nothing about human behavior occurs by accident or chance
Personality is "determined"
Didn’t promote biological determinism. Emphasized psychological determinism
Explored his own childhood as the origins of his behavior
Belief that boys want to "kill" their fathers in order to "marry" their mothers
This feeling of his may have created guilt when his dad died. Freud was 40.

Personality Structure
3 basic components of personality; 1st is biological side, 2nd is psychological side, 3rd is societies contribution
Id, Ego, Superego are processes of the mind w/ "job" to organize mental life and interact w/ one another
All powered by Libido (energy described as psychical desire, erotic tendencies, sexual desire, and motive forces for sexual life)
Always struggling with each other to dominate personality
Id = origin of personality
Operates according to the Pleasure Principle (achievement of pleasurable feelings as quickly as possible through the reduction of discomfort, pain, or tension)
Satisfies it’s needs through the Primary Process (continual flow of events involving images and wishes that demand immediate satisfaction)
Id is the reservoir of instincts
2 basic instincts
Eros = represents energy for preserving love for self and love of others.
Thanatos = towards destructiveness and death aimed at returning living things to original lifeless state. Promotion of aggressiveness is most important function.
Preoccupation w/ self and needs "I want"
Ego = coherent organization of mental processes that develops out of Id energy, has access to consciousness, and devoted to contacting reality to satisfy Id’s needs

Adapt to outside world
Guided by the Secondary Process (includes intellectual operations like thinking, evaluating, planning, and decision-making that determine whether certain behaviors are beneficial)
Bridge to reality but not totally conscious
Ego’s reaction to threatening instincts is stress/anxiety
So, Ego calls upon Defense Mechanisms (internal, unconscious, and automatic psychological strategies for coping and regaining control over id instincts)
Repression — threatening material is unavailable for recall b/c it’s been pressed down into the unconscious
Projection — protects individuals from threat by allowing them to literally project their own traits to other people
Rationalization — excuse for threatening and unacceptable behavior and thoughts
Intellectualize — talk and think at intellectual level rather than emotional about what is threatening them
Undoing bad behavior by displaying behavior designed to reverse the effects of the undesirable acts

Exaggerated use of defense mechanisms results in Neuroses (anxiety driven patterns of abnormal behavior from over control of instincts)
Hysterical Neurosis = person develops symptoms of physical disorder to avoid threatening experiences. Pretends.
Superego = representation of society in personality that incorporates norms and standards of culture
Kid adopts society’s rules, regulations, and codes of right and wrong
Introjection = process where personality incorporates norms and standards of its culture through identification w/ parents or role models of society
Operates according to Morality Principle (code concerning society’s values)
Conscience (internal agent punishing people when they do wrong; guilt)
To help control Id impulses by directing energy toward inhibiting id’s expression of sexual and aggressive instincts
Seeks to suppress needs of Id rather than satisfy them
Illogically striving for 100% perfection
Superego can result in feelings of pride and self-respect through the influence of the Ego Ideal (positive standards in form of internal representations of idealized parental figures)

Five Stages of Personality (Psychosexual Stages)
4 of stages associated w/ erogenous zones (sensitive areas of body)
Sexual as defined by Freud = any pleasurable feeling associated w/ stimulation of erogenous zones.
Libido substituted as term for sexual cravings (reflections of Eros the life instinct)
Everyone’s basic personality is established by age 5
May become fixated upon a stage; satisfaction frustrated; fixated people likely to show regression
Every decision you display results from influences present in the unconscious
Oral (narcissistic) Stage
-birth to 1 year -focus upon satisfying needs of mouth and digestive tract; incl. Tongue and lips -Aim of Eros for self-preservation is made possible by nourishment through mouth -Thumbsucking -Oral Receptive = personality type derived from childhood pleasures of receiving food and digesting it. Form relationships dependent upon others. Gullible. Interested in getting info and knowledge and material goods "will swallow anything" -Oral Aggressive = derived from childhood pleasures of mouth, food, eating, but w/ more chewing, biting, and use of teeth. Sarcastic and argumentative. Seek to hold firmly to others. Aggressive in relationships w/ others
Anal Stage (2-3 yrs)
-sexual gratification occurs w/ relieving tension of full bowel and stimulating anus -toilet training (issue of interpersonal interaction and conflict b/t parent & kid) -Anal Retentive = delay of final satisfactions to last possible moment. Always "save" for the future whether relating to $ or need. Orderliness, stingy and stubborn. -Anal Expulsive = inclination to disregard accepted rules of cleanliness, orderliness, and appropriate behavior. React against others attempts to restrict them by doing what they want whenever and wherever. Messiness, sloppiness, aggressive destructiveness, temper tantrums, emotional outbursts and cruelty.
Phallic Stage (4-5 yrs)


-satisfaction through masturbation
-central to Freud’s theory b/c

last infantile stage
provides context where 2 important complexes develop and critical issues of anxiety and envy become relevant
basis of psychological and social identification for children
results in psychological and sex-role differences
determines development of superego


-difference b/t boys and girls
-boys have possessive love for mothers and see fathers as rivals (this thinking influenced by Greek myth
-Oedipus complex = feelings, desires, and strivings revolving around a boys desire for mom and hate toward dad. -Electra complex = love of dad and hate of mom for girls -Boys experience Castration Anxiety = fear that they might lose "boy parts"-vital organ of pleasure -Girls display penis-envy = the wish to obtain one of their own. Girls might blame mothers. -final step of Oedipal complex is formation of superego -Fixated male may devote life to sexual promiscuity in quest for sexual gratification not gotten as a child. Or he might get attracted to men. -girls have more difficult time of identification w/ mothers. Why? Girls have ambivilance for mothers and blame for not giving/taking away her the "boy part" Girls Electra complex also turns to dad in hope of getting "missing part" from him. -Freud believes that female superego develops less completely than males

4) Latency Stage (6-12) -notable for absence of dominant erogenous zone -children lay aside attraction to parents and become sexually disinterested


-Libidinous instincts transformed through sublimation (process reorienting instinctual aims that are more personally and culturally acceptable) (Ex) teen fixed in anal stage might be interested in clay substituting earlier desires to play w/ feces


5) Genital Stage (puberty +)


-phase of mature sexual love; directing feelings of lust and affection towards others -1st 3 stages revolved around Cathexes (attachments of libidinous energy to external world objects or fantasized internal images). Pregenital stage cathexes typified by self-centered images. Genital stage Cathexes directed less towards bodily pleasure but more to emotional -final resolution of Phallic stage identification difficulties for women. Accept themselves.



Freud view of Females
Girls more dependent on defense mechanism of repression
Weaker superego development
Women function at lower morality level than men
Elizabeth Young-Bruehl (1990) reasoned Freud’s view on women that they are innately bisexual. Females first masculine b/c of wish to have "boy part" then female b/c they accept themselves by Genital stage so…bisexual.

Free Association
Freud’s primary technique for getting to unconscious
Person adopts a mental orientation allowing ideas, images, memories, and feelings to be expressed spontaneously
One can experience Catharsis (process by which inner feelings are openly expressed in words or behaviors)
Allow expression of anything and everything that comes to mind
Provides therapists clues about unconscious

Dream Interpretation
Manifest content of dreams (what is remembered) is deceptive and shouldn’t be taken literally
Dreams are processes of the Id
Ego deals w/ conscious suppression of dream material by modifying Id instinctual impulses and images represented by dreaming using censorship and symbolic substitution. So, true content of dreams is disguised.
Latent content = underlying meaning of dreams
Dream symbol = something in dream representing some person, thing, or activity involved in the unconscious processes.
Symbols are personal rather than universal
Each dream analyzed separately. Result is to discover some wish-fulfillment for the dreamer (the primary purpose of dreaming)

Psychoanalysis
Systematic procedures for providing systematic procedures for providing a patient with the insight necessary to rid the personality of it’s neurotic conflicts.
Through insight, personally unacceptable and socially taboo experiences buried in unconscious can be made conscious.
Freud tried hypnosis but was discouraged b/c afterwards symptoms didn’t go away
Free association allowed patients to consciously comprehend everything they said while saying it.
Couch used helps patients relax for effective free association
Sat behind patients to minimize therapist influence upon psychological explorations
Transference = patients relate to psychoanalyst as if he were from their past w/ whom they continued conflict with.
Countertransference = when analysts project their own unconscious needs to the patient


Supporting and Qualifying Evidence

McVicker Hunt (1979) assessed evidence of lines of investigation from Freud’s ideas. Found the studies "lent support" to Freud’s proposition about "importance of childhood" but not to his psychosexual experiences.
Salvatore Maddi (1968) concluded that there’s qualified support for 2 Freudian concepts. Although Not all behavior is defensive, ego defense is supported by studies relating to repression and there’s more evidence of castration anxiety among men than women.
Lloyd Silvermam (1976) summarized 2 10-yr research programs. These independent lab studies support relationship b/t certain types of abnormal behavior and and types of unconscious conflict.
Psychoanalytic Theory predicts that info relevant to a certain fixation or inner conflict would affect persons w/ that fixation/conflict, but info related to other kinds of fixations would have no effect on them.
Blum (1949,1950,1962) assessed psychosexual fantasies in college students asked to tell stories of series of cartoon pictures of a dog. Study on castration anxiety in men and "envy" in women
Hall and Van de Castle (1965) to determine presence of castration anxiety, wishes, and envy. Study severely criticized b/c used explanations of results provided by non-Freudian theories.
Raskin and Shaw (1988) research for evidence on Freud’s oral stage.
Gabriel, Critelli, and Ee (1994) examined positive illusions of intelligence and physical attractiveness among people administered a narcissism test
DeAngelis (1994) 1st convincing experimental evidence for Freud’s transference. Reported research by Anderson where subjects described sig. Other and exposed to characterizations of fictional others including one like the descriptions. Memory test where they falsely remembered features of a significant other as belonging to the partially similar fictional other, even if the feature was not part of what they said. Show we have mental images of sig. Others from earlier that we may project as a whole onto people we encounter later in life that resemble the sig.other. Freud would agree that we tend to see the partial replica as totally like the original. Emotional reactions may also be consistent w/ memory image and persons resembling.
Slips of the Tongue have evidence of unconscious.
Michael Motley (1985;1987) slips are due to misfiring of brain and verbal mechanisms. Motley believes traditional notions of unconscious may not be entirely w/o merit. Can be embarrassing. When environment contains clues relating to certain motivations we tend to have in unconscious mind, words representing the forbidden motivation may pop out.
Greenwald (1992) says unconscious may be simple, straightforward and unanalytical compared to consciousness

Limitations on Psychoanalytic Theory (PT)
Cannot be considered a fully scientific theory
Concepts are not open to direct observation; hard to test significantly
Little ability to predict behavior
Concepts work well when applied backwards, accounting for the past after facts have been gathered (Stanovich, 1989)
Primary setting for gathering data has been the clinic, not laboratory. In clinic, events that are irrelevant to diagnosis and treatment act on patients and analysts but can’t be controlled.
Analysts, as observers, influence what they observe (Joseph 1980) Maybe requiring analysts to undergo psychoanalysis may lessen their influence by allowing them to see from patients’ perspective.
Clinic subject samples are unrepresentative of people in general

Freud’s major case studies were of Venetian women w/ abnormal behaviors, upper class and single.

Ideas relied heavily on childhood. He had few child patients
Assumptions about children may be questioned
2 studies show 50% of kids 4-6 have knowledge of differences b/t girls and boys and these children showed little emotional trauma over it. (Conn and Kanner 1947, Katcher 1955)
Kohlberg (1966) says a better alternative to castration anxiety is general childhood fear of bodily injury, not fear of losing a sex organ.
Foundation of Psychoanalytic theory has been questioned.
Freud’s Seduction thesis = belief that early patients were actually sexually molested in childhood and repressed memories of these traumas were source of their adult hysterical neuroses.
Freud changed his "real abuse" to "fantasy abuse" in later letters to Masson. Changed not for objective, scientific purposes but for personal reasons.
Masson’s reliability has even been questioned. Some believe Freud had honest change of heart.
Early patients never claimed they were seduced (Esterson 1993)
Freud may have just suggested their seduction. Patients were under pressure to report memories of seduction so they may have falsely admitted (Powell and Boer 1994)
Patients may have also shown "false memory syndrome" (Loftus 1993)
Freud reported different findings at different times. Could’ve been a liar or collected false evidence, blah, blah, blah

In summary of Masson guy: Masson accused that Freud, for personal reasons, abandoned an earlier seduction theory in favor of fantasy position. In addition, Powell and Boer charge that Freud suggested seduction scenarios to patients who incorporated them into memory. Esterson asserted that patients’ reports to Freud contained nothing regarding to seduction; rather Freud consciously or unconsciously invented the seduction scenarios.

__________________
Born with personality is an accident but dying as a personality is an achievement.

Abnormal behavior review

Abnormal behavior - Behavior that is maladaptive and harmful

Behaviorist - Medical Model/Disease Model - Forerunner of the biological approach… abnormality is a disease or illness precipitated by internal physical causes.

Interactionist - Abnormal behavior is influence by biological factors (brain processes), psychological factors (emotional turmoil), and by social factors (inadequate relationships)

Woman are diagnosed more then males because
Woman more likely to behave in ways that others label as mental disorders.
Woman are taught to express their emotions, while men are trained to control them.
Woman have unequal social positions and greater discrimination, more likely to experience trauma-inducing circumstances
Woman often placed in "double-blind" situations in society… Woman labeled as mentally disordered for either over conforming or under conforming to feminine gender role stereotypes.

Anxiety Disorders - Psychological disorders that include the following main features : motor tension (jumpiness, trembling, inability to relax); hyperactivity (dizziness; a racing heart, perspiration); and apprehensive expectorations and thoughts.

5 types of anxiety disorder:
Generalized Anxiety Disorder - Persistent anxiety for at least a month; the individual with a generalize anxiety disorder is unable to specify the reasons for anxiety.
Panic Disorder - Reoccurring sudden onset of intense apprehension or terror. Feeling of impending doom, may not feel anxious all of the time. Anxiety attack strikes without warning and produces severe palpitations, extreme shortness of breath, chest pains, trembling, sweating, dizziness, and feeling of helplessness. Victims seize by fear that they will die, go crazy or do something they cannot control.
Phobic Disorders (Phobias) - Individual has irrational, overwhelming, persistent fear of a particular object or situation. Can pinpoint the cause of nervous feelings.
Agoraphobia - Fear of entering unfamiliar situations, especially open or public spaces. More common phobic disorder.
Psychoanalytical reasons why à phobias develop as a defense mechanism\ to ward off threatening or unacceptable impulses.
Learning theorist reason why à phobia are learned fears
Cross-cultural psychologist à
phobias are influenced by cultural factors
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) - Individual has anxiety provoking thoughts that will not go away (obsession) and/or urges to perform repetitive, ritualistic behaviors to prevent or produce some future situation (compulsions)
Repent & rehearse normal doubts & daily routines
Obsessive = thinks; compulsive = action
Most common = excessive checking, cleaning, counting

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) - Exposure to any of several traumatic events such as war; severely oppressive situations (holocaust), severe abuse (rape); natural disasters (floods); and accidental disaster (plane crashes). Anxiety symptoms that may immediately follow the trauma or by months of years.

Symptoms
Flash backs
Constricted ability to feel emotions
Excessive arousal
Difficulties in memory and concentration
Feelings of apprehension
Impulsive outbursts of behavior
Stomatoform Disorders - Mental disorders in which psychological symptoms take a physical or somatic, form even though no physical causes can be found.
Hypochondriasis - Individual has a pervasive fear of illness and disease.
a. Pill enthusiast
Often depressed/ comes with other disorders
Switch doctor to find diagnosis that matches their own
Conversion Disorder - Individual experiences specific, genuine physical symptoms even though no physiological problems can be found.
Some loss of motor or sensory ability
Unable to speed, may faint, become deaf or blind
Dissociative Disorders - Sudden loss of memory or change in identify. Under extreme stress of shock, the individual’s conscious awareness becomes dissociated from previous memories and thoughts.
1. Psychogenic Amnesia - Memory loss caused by extensive psychotically stress.
2. Fugue - Individual develops amnesia, but also unexpectedly travels away from home and assumes a new identity.
3. Multiple Personality - Individuals have two or more distinct personalities or selves.

Mood Disorders - Wide emotional swings, ranging from deep depression to extreme euphoria and agitations.
1. Major Depression - Individual is deeply unhappy, demoralized, self-derogatory, and bored, showing changes in appetite, and sleep patterns, decreased energy, feelings of worthlessness, concentration problems, and guilt feelings that might prompt thoughts of suicide.
Bipolar Disorder - Individual might be depressed, manic, or both.
Manic - Elation, exuberance, tireless stamina, humorous, scheming, tendency for excess, relentless, irritable, almost constant motion. Garbled incoherent, rapid speech. Do stuff not usually done.
B. Causes
Psychanalytic - Turing inward of aggressive instincts…. Combo of insecure attachment to the mother, a lack of love and affection as child , and the actual loss of a parent during childhood gives ride to a negative cognitive set, or schema.
Cognitive - Self-defeating ways, and negative expectations about the future à reflect schemas that shape the depressed individual’s experiences. Habitual negative thoughts magnify and expand a depressed person’s negative experiences.
Biogenetic - Genetic inheritance and chemical changes in the brain. Depressed lacks neropinephrine, manic have more…
Sociocultural - Society emphasis on self, independence and individualism, coupled with an erosion of connectedness to others, family and religion... widespread hopelessness.

Schizophrenic Disorders - Characterized by distorted thoughts and perceptions, odd communication, inappropriate emotion, abnormal motor behavior, and social withdrawal. Individual’s mind is split from reality, and personality loses its unity.
1. Words:
a. Delusions - False beliefs… may think he is JC Napoleon….
Hallucinations - Hear, see, feel, smell and tast things now… often hear voices...
World Salad - loose, incoherent, word associations, language does not follow any rules
2. Disorganized schizophrenia - Individual has delusions and hallucinations.. little or no recognizable meaning. Withdraws from human contact. Silly, childlike gestures and behavior
Catatonic Schizophrenia - Bizarre motor behavior Immobile stupor.
Paranoid schizophrenia - Delusions of reference, grandeur, and persecution…. Misinterpretation of actual events… delusions of reference (singled out for attn.) Misinterpret change events… Delusions of grandeur…(IM pope) delusions of persecution (target of conspiracy)
Undifferentiated schizophrenia - Disorgnaized behavior, hallucinations, delusions, and incoherence.
Causes
Genetics - high change of getting if it identical twin has it…
Neurobiological - imbalances in brain chemistry… defects in brain metabolism, malfunction dopamine system, distorted cerebral blood flow…
Enviro. Factor - Diathesis-stress view - combo of enviro & biogenetic disposition


Personality Disorders - Personality traits become inflexible and thus maladaptive.
1. Schizotypal Personality Disorder - Odd/eccentric cluster… appear to be in contact with reality, but many aspects of their behavior are distasteful… leads others to retreat or withdraw from them…
Obessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder - Anxious/fearful cluster of personality disorders… anxious adjustment is primary feature…
Borderline Personality Disorder - dramatic/emotional/erratic cluster of personality disorders.
4. Antisocial Personality Disorder - Dramatic/emotional/erratic cluster of personality disorders…. Most problematic disorder for society… often resort to crime, violence, and delinquency…
Substance-use Disorders?
Druggies?
Psychotherapy - process used by mental health professionals to help individuals recognize, define, and overcome their psychological and interpersonal difficulties and improve their adjustment.
1. Talking, interpreting, listening, regarding, and modeling….
insight therapy - both psychodynamic and humanistic therapies.. encourage insight and awareness of oneself.

Psychodynamic theories - emp. Unconscious thought
1. Psychoanalysis
Free associations
Cartharsis - release of emotional tension
dream analysis
manifest content - conscious part of dream
latent content - unconscious part of dream
Transference - client re-living imp. Relationships
Resistance - unconscious defense strategies

Humanistic Therapies - encouraged to understand themselves, and grow personally… emp. Conscious thought , present (vs. past), growth & fulfillment.
person- centered therapy - warm supportive atm… improve clients self concept and encourage the client to gain insight about problems…
Gestalt therapy = questions and challenges clients to help them become more aware of their feelings and face their problems…

Behaviorist - principles of learning to reduce or eliminate maladaptive behavior
1. systematic desensitivation
2. Aversive conditioning - repeating pairing of undesirable behavior with aversive stimuli to decreases the behavior’s rewards so the individual will stop doing it…
3. Flooding
4. Behavior Modification

Cognitive - Emp. That the indiv’s cogitation or thoughts are the main source of abnormal behavior. Attempt to change the indiv’s feeling and behaviors by changing cognitions.
1. Rational-emotive therapy - Indivs. Become psychology disordered because of their beliefs, especially those that are irrational and self-defeating. ABCDE. Activation Experience, Believe, Consequences, Disputation, Effects.
2. Beck’s Cognitive Therapy - Depression. 4 phases 1.) identify self labels 2.) notice when they are thinking distorted or irrational thoughts 3.) substitute appropriate thoughts. 4.) given feedback and motivation comments from the therapist to stimulate their use of these techniques.

__________________
Born with personality is an accident but dying as a personality is an achievement.

Behaviorism Review

Learning — A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.

Classical Conditioning — Responding
Operand Conditioning — Acting
Observational Conditioning — Observing

Classical Conditioning

— A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

-The organism as responding to the environment (fails to capture active nature of the organism and its influence on the environment. )


-Explains involuntary responses

- Pavlov
-Reflexes — Automatic stimulus-response connections.


-Unconditional Stimulus (US) — A stimulus that provides a response without prior learning.
-Unconditional Response — (UP) — An unlearned response that is automatically elected by the US
-Conditioned Stimulus (CS) — Previous neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the condition response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
-Conditioned Response (CR) — Learned response to CS that occurs after CS-US paring. (Pavlov, 1927)
-(DeCola & Fanselow, 1995) — The interval between the CS & US is one of the most important aspects of classical conditioning


- Congruity — Degree of association of the stimuli.


-(Kimble, 1961) — Conditioned responses developed when the interval between the CS and US is very short, as in a matter of seconds. In many instances, optimal spacing is a fraction of a second.
-Generalization - The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original stimulus to produce a response that is similar to the conditioned response.
-Discrimination — The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not to respond to others.
-Extinction — The weakening of the conditioned response in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
-Spontaneous Recovery — The process by which a condition response can recur after a time delay without further conditioning.

-Stimulus Substitution — Pavlov’s theory of how classical conditioning works; the nervous system is structured in such a way that the CS and the US bond together and eventually the CS substituted for the US.
-Information Theory — Contemporary explanation of why classical condition works; key to understand classical conditioning focuses on the information an organism gets from the situation.
-(E. C. Tolman, 1932) — The organism used the CS as a sign or expectation that a US will follow.
-Phobias — Irrational fears
-Counterconditioning — A procedure for weakening a CR by associating the fear-provoking stimulus with a new response incompatible with the fear.

- (Mary Cover Jones, 1924) — Eliminated fear in 3 year old.
-Some behaviors associated with health problems or mental disorders can involved classical conditioning.


-Operant Conditioning


-Form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence.
-The behavior operates on the environments, and the environment in turn operates on the behavior.

-Explains voluntary actions
-Stimuli that govern behavior follow the behavior (as oppose to Classical C.)

-E. L. Thorndike


-Experimented with power of consequences in determining voluntary behavior
-Law of Effect — Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthen, whereas behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.
- S-R Theory —Thorndike’s view
- The correct stimulus-response association strengths and the incorrect association weakens because of the consequences of the organism’s actions
- Organism’s behavior is due to a connection between a stimulus and a response.



-B. F. Skinner

- Developed concept of operant conditioning (1938)
-Pigeon-guided missile

- Walden Two (1948)
-Presented idea of scientifically managed society
-Utopian society through behavioral control

-Our behavior is controlled by environmental forces is to ignore science and reality
-Skinner box
-A device in a box would deliver food pellets into a tray at random. After a rate became accustomed to the box, Skinner installed a lever and observed the rat’s behavior. As the hungry rat explored the box, it occasionally pressed the ever and a food pellet would be dispenses.


-Reinforcement (reward) — A consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur

-Positive Reinforcement — The frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a stimulus
-Negative Reinforcement — The frequency of a response increases because the response is either removes a stimulus or involves avoiding the stimulus.
-Punishment — A consequence that decreases the probability that a behavior will occur.

-Time Interval
- Learning more efficient when the interval between response and reinforcement is a few seconds rather than minutes or hours.
-(Holland, 1996) — Learning is more efficient under immediate rather than delayed consequences.
-Shaping and Chaining
-Shaping — The process of rewarding approximations of desired behavior.
-Chaining — Technique used to reach a complex sequence, or chain or behaviors. The procedure begins by shaping the final response in the sequence. Then you work backward until a chain of behaviors is learned.
-Primary and Secondary Reinforcement
-Positive reinforcement
-Primary Reinforcement — Involves the use of reinforces that are innately satisfying, that is they do not take any learning on the organism’s part to make them pleasurable.
-Secondary Reinforcement — Acquires its positive value through experience; secondary reinforces are learned or conditioned reinforces.
-Token Rein forcer — Money
-Schedules of Reinforcement
-Partial Reinforcement- Responses are not reinforced each time they occur
-Schedules of reinforcement — "Timetables" that determine when a response will be reinforced.

-Fixed-Ratio Schedule — Reinforces a behavior after a set number of responses.
-Variable-Ratio Schedule — A timetable in which responses are rewarded an average number of time, but on an unpredictable basis.
-Fixed-Interval Schedule — Reinforces the first appropriated response after a fixed amount of time has elapsed.
-Variable-Interval Schedule — A timetable in which a response is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed.
-The closer the schedule is to continuous reinforcement, the faster the individual learns. However, once behavior is learned, the intermittent schedules can be effective n maintaining behavior.
-(Skinner, 961) — Rate of behavior varies from one schedule to the next

-Fixed-ratio schedule produced a high rate of behavior with a pause occurring between the
reinforce and the behavior
-Variable-ration schedule elicits a high rate of behavior when the pause after the reinforcement is eliminated…. This schedule usually elicits the highest response rate of all four schedules.
-Interval schedules produce behavior at a lower rate than ratio schedules


-Extinction — A previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and there is decreased tendency to perform the response.
-Generalization —Giving the same response to similar stimuli.

-Discrimination — The tendency to respond only to those stimuli that are correlated with reinforcement.
-Discriminative Stimuli — Signal that a response will be reinforced


-Applied behavior analysis (behavior modification) — Application of operant condition principles to change human behavior.

Observational Learning — (aka imitation or modeling) Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates someone’s behavior.
-(Bandura (1965) — Bobo dolls


Cognitive Factors in Learning

-S-O-R Model — A model of learning that gives some importance to cognitive factors
-S=stimuls
-O=organism, "black box"
-R=response
-Cognitive map — An organism’s mental representation of the structure of physical space.
-Insight learning — A form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight or understanding of a problem’s solution
-Preparedness — Species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain way but not in others
-Instinctive Drift — Tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning.
-Taste aversion —if an organism ingests a substance that poisons but does not kill it, the organism often develops considerable distaste for that substance.

__________________
Born with personality is an accident but dying as a personality is an achievement.

Cognitive Psychology Review


Cognitive:

Cognitivism emphasizes mental processes
It looks at how we: direct our attention, perceive, think, remember, and solve problems.
The cognitive approach emphasizes the scientific aspect of psychology
Information processing looks at minds like computers.
Piaget stressed that children do not just passively receive information from their environment, they actively construct their own cognitive world.
Organization and adaption underline a child’s mental construction of the world.
Assimilation is the incorporation of new information into one’s existing knowledge.
Accommodation is an individual’s adjustment to new information.
Sensori — Motor Thought is the first Piagetian stage of development that lasts from birth - 2 years of age. In this stage the infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions.
Object Permanence is Piaget’s term for one of the infant’s most important accomplishments: understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched.
Operations are mental representations that are reversible.
Preoperational Thought is the term Piaget gave to the 2 to 7 year old child’s understanding of the world. Children at this stage of reasoning (can/cannot) understand such logical operations as the reversibility of mental representations.
Conservation is the belief in the permanence of certain attributes of objects or situations in spite of superficial changes.
The child’s thought in the preoperational stage (is/is not) egocentric.
Egocentrism is the (ability/inability) to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s perspective.
Concrete Operational Thought is the term Piaget gave to the 7 to 11 year old child’s understanding of the world. At this stage of thought children (can/cannot) use operations. Logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought as long as the principles are applied to concrete examples.
In this stage thought (is/is not) abstract.
Children (do/do not) have classification skills, which aid in dividing things into sets and subsets.
Piaget’s methods in classifying these stages were interviews and observations.
Piaget was come under criticism because of his stages. People feel that the stages (assume/do not assume) synchrony in development.
Neo-Piagetians are developmentalists who have (elaborated/condensed) on Piaget’s theory, they believe that children’s development (is more/is less) specific in many respects than he thought.
Formal Operational Thought is Piaget’s name for the fourth stage of cognitive development which appears between 11 and 15 years of age. This stage (is/is not) abstract, idealistic, and logical.
Hypothetical Deductive reasoning is Piaget’s name for adolescents’ ability to develop hypotheses, or best hunches, about ways to solve problems.
Adolescent egocentrism involves the belief that others are as preoccupied with the adolescent as she herself is, the belief that one is unique, and the belief that one (is/is not) indestructible.
Piaget believed that adults and adolescents think in (the same/different) ways.
Other developmental psychologists (believed/did not believe) the same as Piaget.
In order for a scheme to develop one must occur disequilibrium where a contradiction is experienced. assimilation also occurs where children begin to interpret new experiences. Accomidation is when a child modifies the existing scheme.
Children (are/are not) taught how to think. They construct their own world through their interaction with the environment.
Cognitive moral development’s first stage is the pre-moral period between the ages of pre school to 5 or so. Here there (is/is not) very little concern or awareness of socially defined rules.
Heteronomous Morality is from 5 1/2 to 10 years of age. Here there (is/is not) advanced or mature cognitive abilities. Language begins to develop and memory begins to increase. Authority figures (are/are not) considered sacred. Rules (are/are not) set in stone. Actions are perceived by intent not motives. There is a belief in eminent justice.
Autonomous Morality is from the ages of 10 1/2 and up. Here, children (recognize/do not recognize) that rules are arbitrary and there (are/are not) exceptions. There (is/is not) recognition of rules sometimes needing to be broken. They can look at actions and infer motives and intent. There is a more realistic view of justice.
Bandura says that learning is facilitated by awareness, which therefore demonstrates forethought.
The environment (is/is not) crucial, but so are the cognitive elements that allow for cognitive maps.
We (are/are not) robots.
Memory, Language and Thinking are components of cognition.
We (are/are not) rational creatures (with/without) free will.
A cognitive map is an internal representation of an explanation of a behavior.
Bandura says that there are four key processes to social learning that behaviorists fail to account for and three key concepts to social learning. Label either c (concept) or p (process):
P attention C modeling
C symbolic modeling P reinforcement
P motor-reproduction C model
P retention
There is constant interplay between the environment, behavior and cognitive factors.
Cognitive therapies stress that the individual’s beliefs are the main source of abnormal behavior. These therapies attempt to change the individual’s feelings and behaviors by changing beliefs. They adhere to a conversational format. These therapies are very effective in treating mood disorders.
Rational-Emotive therapy is based on Albert Ellis’ assertion that individuals become psychologically disordered because of their beliefs, especially those that are irrational and self-defeating. This is the A-B-C-D-E therapy. This therapy says that emotions go from an activating experience to a belief system. This leads to consequences. Then the therapist challenges the belief system in disputation. Then outcomes or effects are reached. In this therapy the problem that is stressed is the belief system.
In Beck’s Cognitive therapy there are four phases which Beck believes effectively treats depressed persons. Put them in order:
3 They learn how to substitute appropriate thoughts for inappropriate ones
4 They are given feed-back and motivating comments from the therapist to stimulate their use of these techniques.
1 The depressed clients are shown how to identify self-labels, that is, how they view themselves.
2 They are taught to notice when they are thinking distorted or irrational thoughts.
The National Mental Health (NMH) institute supports the belief that this therapy is an effective treatment of depression.
Piaget in 1954 did an experiment mostly on an observational level. He was trying to substantiate how we establish reality. There (is/is not) validity to his cognitive stages, according to him. This study validates that object permanence (is/is not) very important. This study (has/does not have) an impact on morality.
Bandura in the 80s and 90s looked into personality theories. He was criticized for his observational studies. He looked at past and present events to account for behaviors that people have engaged in. He focused on World War II and Hitler’s Germany. He said that Hitler made what his followers were doing useful behavior so they would join his army by telling them that they would otherwise die. Hitler’s Germany (substantiated/did not substantiate) the social learning theory.

Humanist:

Humanists believe that people (have/do not have) capacity for human growth.
They believe that people (do/do not) have the freedom to choose their destiny.
They stress positive qualities in humans.
They believe that people have the ability to improve their lives.
Our personal perception of ourselves is (more/less) important than the environment.
We have the potential for self-understanding.
We should support others so they can have a positive self image and self-understanding.
Carl Rogers stressed warm and therapeutic environments.
Abraham Maslow thinks that our potential is virtually limitless.
People stay together because of their positive perception of each other.
Rogers says that due to conditional positive regard, humans do not believe positive things about themselves and have low self-esteem.
Rogers does not believe in all aspects of the self are conscious but he did believe that the self was accessible in the consciousness.
Self-Concept is how we perceive our abilities, behavior and personality.
The real self is how we truly are and the ideal self is how we want ourselves to be.
Unconditional positive regard, genuiness and empathy help improve our relationship with others.
A fully functioning person is: (open/not open) to experience, (very/not very) defensive, (aware/not aware) to the external world, has a (harmonious/ non-harmonious) relationship with others.
Self-Actualization is the motivation to develop one’s full potential as a human being.
The methodology they believe in the most is clinical interpretation. They scorn controlled experiments.
One criticism of humanism is that self-actualization is difficult to test. Also many believe they have too (much/little) optimism of human nature. Some say humanism encourages narcissism.
Person-Centered therapy was developed by Carl Rogers. This therapy provides a warm and supportive atmosphere to improve the client’s self esteem. The therapist has an extremely personal relationship with the client. The therapy is non-directive and encouraging. This requires genuiness of the therapist and active empathy and listening.
Gestalt therapy was developed by Fredrick Perls. In this therapy, the therapist confronts clients in order to help them become (more/less) aware of their feelings and to face their problems. This therapy pushes clients to overcome the past. Clients are confronted with their feelings. The therapist sets an example and encourages verbal and non-verbal congruence. Role-playing is used to aid the patient in making their feelings more controlled.
Rosenthall and Jakobsin in 1966 did a study on teachers’ attention and expectations in regards to their students abilities. This was a test in self-fulfilling prophecies. The amount of attention given by teachers (will/will not) determine how well the students do. Unconditional Postive regard would be necessary in order for the students to move up the pyramid. This (gave/did not give) validity to the assumption that in order to move up on the hierarchy people need to feel self-esteem.
Ravizza in 1977 did a study on athletes. He interviewed athletes to see if there was validity to the concept of peak experiences. The interviews (did/did not) validate the concept of peak experiences. Later studies showed that athletes were more likely to have peak experiences.
Wicker et.al. in 1993 questioned Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. They researched past studies in order to show that the whole concept revolvers around the lower needs being (not as/more) important than the higher needs. They believed there (was/was not) a problem with this concept.

__________________
Born with personality is an accident but dying as a personality is an achievement.

Personality assessment review


Walter Mischel (1968) - Personality and Assessment, criticized trait view of personality and psychoanalytic approach. Said personality often changes according to situations, unlike the previous approaches which show consistency. Said trait measures poorly predict actual behavior. Made view of situationism- personality varies considerably from one context to another.
Most psychologists today are interactionists, believing in both trait and situation ideas to describe personality. Link between traits and situations specified: more limited and narrower a trait is, more likely it will predict a behavior; not everyone consistent on the same trait; traits give a strong influence on an individual's behavior when situational influences are less likely to affect personality.
Self-esteem- evaluative & affective dimension of self-concept. AKA self-image, self-worth. Research shows low self-esteem sufferers focus on weaknesses, rather than strengths. Carolin Showers (1992) - showed compartmentalization of pos and neg self-knowledge (i.e. "I'm a brilliant student with wonderful grades" - pos. "I'm in hard classes with hard tests and lots of homework" - neg.) also mixed compartmentalization (i.e. "I'm a brilliant student that takes hard tests and has lots of homework" and "I'm in hard classes that give me wonderful grades.") adjectives are frequent in this compartmentalization.
Susan Harter (1988) - found kids with high self-worth are successful in the domains they perceive as important and discount the importance of other domains that they don't succeed well in.
Big Five Factors - emotional stability, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Paul Costa and Robert McCrae (1992) made a test to check these - Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory, Revised (or NEO-PI-R)
Longitudinal studies used often in assessing personality development and if it ever stabilizes (Freud 5 years… William James 30 and stops). Costa and McCrae studied 1000 college-educated men and women 20 to 96. started mid-50's and 60's.. still going on today. Berkeley Longitudinal Studies - 500 kids and parents studied late 20's early 30's. John Clausen (1993) started life hist interviews w/ 60 m's and f's from Berkeley long. Studies. ‘planful competence' showed self-confidence, dependability and intellectual investment. It influenced scheduling of major social roles that were later occupied. Higher planful competence showed realistic choices in spouses, occupation and education. Lower planful competence showed unrealistic and less-satisfying jobs and schools. Showed that stability and change fit to make a personality.
Palmists- (palm readers) analyze hands and use the Barnum effect - making predictions so broad that anyone can fit the description. Psychologists use testing to pinpoint exact ideas in personality, not broad ones. Most tests show stable characteristics, not situational ones.
Projective test- presents individuals w/ an ambiguous stimulus and then asks them to describe it or tell a story about it. Based on assumption that ambiguity of stimulus allows individuals to project into it their feelings, desires needs and attitudes. Elicits unconscious feelings and conflicts, assessing underneath basic personality. Beyond overtly presenting oneself
Rorschach inkblot test- Hermann Rorschach, 1921, uses inkblots to determine a person's personality. Very popular. Gives freedom of response to the person.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)- Henry Murray, Christina Morgan, 1930's, ambiguous projective test to elicit stories to reveal personality traits. Series of pictures.
Other tests use incomplete sentences to finish: "I often feel…" or provide words like fear or happy and ask person to respond w/ first thought.
Graphology- handwriting analysis to determine individual's personality
Self-report tests- assess personality traits by asking what they are; don't reveal unconscious personality characteristics
Face validity- assumption that the content of test items is a good indicator of individual's personality
Social desirability- we know this, right
Empirically keyed test- relies on items to predict criterion. Make no assumptions on the nature of the items
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)- most widely used & researched self-report personality test. Revised in 1989, it has criticized for ability to differentiate answers from normal to abnormal. encompasses questions that apply to everyone, so lying can be shown in the testing.

__________________
Born with personality is an accident but dying as a personality is an achievement.

Humanism Review

Humanism and Other Gibberish ' 'Phenomenological Perspective '— Stresses on the importance of our perceptions of ourselves and our world in understanding personality; the perspective emphasizes that for each individual, reality is what is perceived .
'Humanistic Perspective' — Mostly widely known phenomenological approach to personality. The humanist perspective stresses the person’s capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose one’s own destiny, and positive qualities.
Stresses Present and future over past


Working Definition
Conscious experience
Consider whole person & the positive bent of human nature
Personality contains a well of "potential" that can be developed into the fullest

Methodology
Clinical experiences
Experiments
Scorned by some humanist
Criticism
Difficult to test
Self actualization not well defined
No sure how to study this concept empirically
Too optimistic
Overestimating the freedom and rationality of human nature
Encourage self-love and narcissism

Personality Disorders
Intensified by the emphasis on the self and independence in American culture.
Pendulum swung too far toward individualism in Western Civilization


Carl Rodgers and Abraham Maslow were two of the leading architects of humanistic perspective.
'Carl Rodgers' (1902-1987) worked in the 1960’s
Conditional Positive Regard — Rodger’s term for love and praise being withheld unless the individual conforms to parental or social standard.
Rodgers feels people have difficulty accepting their own true feeling
Unconditional Positive Regard — Rodger’s term for accepting valuing, and being positive toward another person regardless of the person’s behavior.
Self-Concept —Central theme in Rodger’s and other humanists’ views; self-concept refers to individual’s overall perceptions of their abilities, behavior, and personality.
If we are 'empathic' and 'genuine', we can help others develop more positive self-concept

'Abraham Maslow' (1908-1870) Hierarchy of Motives — Individual’s main kinds of needs must be satisfied in the following sequence: physiological needs, safety needs, the need for love and belongingness, the need for esteem, cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, and the need for self-actualization.
Physiological Needs —
Safety Needs-
The Need for Love and Belongingness —
The need for Esteem
Most people stop matures after developing a high level of esteem
Cognitive Needs
Aesthetic Needs
The Need for Self-Actualization
Highest and most elusive of Maslow’s needs, is the motivation to develop one’s full potential as a human being.
Few reach self-actualization
'William Sheldon (1954) 'Theory of body types and personality
Endomorph — soft, round, large stomached person who is released, gregarious, and food loving
Mesomorph — Strong, athletic, and muscular person who is energetic, assertive, and courageous
Ectomorph — tall, think fearful person who is fearful, introverted, and restrained.
Stomatotype theory — precise charts of an individual’s body reveal distinct body types, which in turn are associated with certain personality characteristics.
Problems
(Cortes & Gatti (1970)) —No significant relationship between body type and personality
Many people simply do not fit into the neatly packaged category.
Only 1, 2, or 3, categories to describe individuals ignores the rich diversity and complexity of human characteristics
' 'Trait Theories '— Personality consists of broad dispositions, called traits, that tend to lead to characteristic responses. People can be described in terms of the basic ways they behave, such as whether the are outgoing and friendly, or whether they are dominant and assertive. Basic Five Factors
Emotional stability
Being calm rather than anxious, secures rather then insecure, self-satisfied than self-pitying.
Extraversion
Sociable instead of retiring, fun-loving instead of sober, and affectionate instead of reserved.
Openness
Imaginative rather than practical, preferring variety to routine, and being independent rather than conforming
Agreeableness
Being softhearted, not ruthless, trusting, not suspicious, and helpful not uncooperative.
Conscientiousness
Being organized rather than disorganized, careful rather then careless, and disciplined, not impulsive.



Individualism — Giving priority to personal goals rather then to group goals; it emphasizes values that serve the self such as feeling good, personal distinction, and independence.
Collectivism — Emphasizes values that serve the group by subordinate personal goals to preserve group integrity.

Criticism to Trait Theory
(Walter Mischel (1968))
'
Personality and Assessment
'
Criticized the trait view of personality, as well as the psychoanalytic approach
Both emphasis the interval organization of personality
Personality often changes according to a given situation
Response to personality as consisting of broad, internal traits that are consistence across situations and time.
Trait measure do a poor job of predicting actual behavior
Situationism — Personality often varies considerably from one context to another.

' ' Trait Situation Interaction Theory
They believe that both trait (person) and situation variables are necessary to understand personality. They also agree that the degree of consistency in personality depend on the kinds of persons, situations, and behaviors sampled. (Pervin, 1993, Mischel, 1995)
The link between traits and situations has been more precisely specified
The narrowing and more limited trait is, the more likely it will predict behavior.
Some people are consistent on some traits
Personality traits exert a stronger influence on an individual’s behavior when situational influence is less powerful.
Walter Mischel (1968) '— Personality and Assessment', criticized trait view of personality and psychoanalytic approach. Said personality often changes according to situations, unlike the previous approaches which show consistency. Said trait measures poorly predict actual behavior. Made view of situationism- personality varies considerably from one context to another. Most psychologists today are interactionists, believing in both trait and situation ideas to describe personality. Link between traits and situations specified: more limited and narrower a trait is, more likely it will predict a behavior; not everyone consistent on the same trait; traits give a strong influence on an individual’s behavior when situational influences are less likely to affect personality. Self-esteem- evaluative & affective dimension of self-concept. AKA self-image, self-worth. Research shows low self-esteem sufferers focus on weaknesses, rather than strengths. Carolin Showers (1992) — showed compartmentalization of pos and neg self-knowledge (i.e. "I’m a brilliant student with wonderful grades" — pos. "I’m in hard classes with hard tests and lots of homework" — neg.) also mixed compartmentalization (i.e. "I’m a brilliant student that takes hard tests and has lots of homework" and "I’m in hard classes that give me wonderful grades.") adjectives are frequent in this compartmentalization. Susan Harter (1988) — found kids with high self-worth are successful in the domains they perceive as important and discount the importance of other domains that they don’t succeed well in. Big Five Factors — emotional stability, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Paul Costa and Robert McCrae (1992) made a test to check these — Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory, Revised (or NEO-PI-R) Longitudinal studies used often in assessing personality development and if it ever stabilizes (Freud 5 years… William James 30 and stops). Costa and McCrae studied 1000 college-educated men and women 20 to 96. started mid-50’s and 60’s.. still going on today. Berkeley Longitudinal Studies — 500 kids and parents studied late 20’s early 30’s. John Clausen (1993) started life hist interviews w/ 60 m’s and f’s from Berkeley long. Studies. ‘planful competence’ showed self-confidence, dependability and intellectual investment. It influenced scheduling of major social roles that were later occupied. Higher planful competence showed realistic choices in spouses, occupation and education. Lower planful competence showed unrealistic and less-satisfying jobs and schools. Showed that stability and change fit to make a personality. Palmists- (palm readers) analyze hands and use the Barnum effect — making predictions so broad that anyone can fit the description. Psychologists use testing to pinpoint exact ideas in personality, not broad ones. Most tests show stable characteristics, not situational ones. Projective test- presents individuals w/ an ambiguous stimulus and then asks them to describe it or tell a story about it. Based on assumption that ambiguity of stimulus allows individuals to project into it their feelings, desires needs and attitudes. Elicits unconscious feelings and conflicts, assessing underneath basic personality. Beyond overtly presenting oneself Rorschach inkblot test- Hermann Rorschach, 1921, uses inkblots to determine a person’s personality. Very popular. Gives freedom of response to the person. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)- Henry Murray, Christina Morgan, 1930’s, ambiguous projective test to elicit stories to reveal personality traits. Series of pictures. Other tests use incomplete sentences to finish: "I often feel…" or provide words like fear or happy and ask person to respond w/ first thought. Graphology- handwriting analysis to determine individual’s personality Self-report tests- assess personality traits by asking what they are; don’t reveal unconscious personality characteristics Face validity- assumption that the content of test items is a good indicator of individual’s personality Social desirability- we know this, right Empirically keyed test- relies on items to predict criterion. Make no assumptions on the nature of the items Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)- most widely used & researched self-report personality test. Revised in 1989, has 567 t/f/cannot say ?’s. criticized for ability to differentiate answers from normal to abnormal. Encompasses questions that apply to everyone, so lying can be shown in the testing.
Pictures and review tables follow, good to study with.. Check them out
Carl Rogers' Self Theory

Self-actualization–innate tendency toward growth that motivates all human behavior.
Self–the part of experience that a person identifies as I or me
those who accurately experience the self are on path to self actualization
self concept–the way one thinks of oneself
Personality shaped partly by self-actualization tendencies and partly by others' evaluations.
conditions of worth (feeling that you have the "right attitude") are created whenever people are evaluated instead of their behavior
he uses phenomenological approach (gives central role to immediate experience and emphasizes each person's uniqueness) is used in client-centered therapy

Client Centered Therapy
relies on the creation of a relationship tat reflects three intertwined therapist attitudes: unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence
Reflection–a paraphrased summary of the client's words and esp. the feelings and meanings that appear to accompany them–is extremely important and should be done by the therapist. This confirms therapist's interest, and helps the client to perceive thoughts and feelings
Congruence (also genuineness) therapists should try to convey this by acting in ways that are consistent with their feelings during therapy.

Abraham Maslow Maslow's Hierarchy
Physiological needs, such as food, water, oxygen, activity, and sleep. Needs that we need to survive
Safety, such as being cared for as a child and having a secure income as an adult, security basically
Belongingness and love, such as being part of various social groups and participating in affectionate sexual and nonsexual relationships
Esteem, being respected as a useful, honorable individual
Self-actualization, becoming all that one is capable of.

–Involves exploring and enhancing relationships with others, following interests for intrinsic pleasure rather than for status or esteem, and concerning with issues affecting all people, not just themselves.
PERSONALITY THEORY EXPLAINS IT TEN TIMES BETTER
Maslow's Humanistic Psychology
self-actualization is not just a human capacity but a human need
we are distracted from SA because we focus exclusively on needs that are lower on the hierarchy
most people are controlled by a deficiency orientation, a preoccupation with perceived needs for material things

–These people lead a meaningless life because they are always jealous and always focus on the missing something material.

Growth orientation-in this, people do not focus on what is missing but draw satisfaction from what they have, what they are, and what they can do (essentially they don't bitch; I guess women can't ever self-actualize).

–This orientation opens the door to peak experiences, in which people feel joy, even ecstasy, in the mere fact of being alive, being human, and knowing that they are utilizing their fullest potential.


GESTALT THERAPY
Seeks to crate condition in which clients can become more unified, self-aware, and self-accepting, and thus ready to grow again.
therapists use more direct dramatic methods than do Rogerians
therapists prod clients to become aware of feelings and impulses that they have disowned and to discard feelings, ideas and values that are not really their own
Do a lot of dialogues and pay attention to body language.

Humanism: Rogers and Maslow
Rogers had a strong background in scientific knowledge b/c he studied books on agriculture when he was a teen. From books like Feeds and Feeding by: Morison, he learned how experiments were conducted, how control grps were matched w/ experimental groups, how conditions were held constant, and how to test a hypothesis. -used this scientific procedure knowledge to show his therapies effective, acknowledge the biological side of humans, and render his concepts testable
Formulated a person-centered point of view; finding Freud’s ideas in conflict w/ experimental aspects of his academic training.
Rejects the Medical Model (idea people are sick and need treatment/medication) Used the term client instead of patient
Endorsed the Growth Model (help remove whatever blocks to growth exist so one can move beyond being normal or average) Rogers’s View of the Person Humanistic Psychology = emphasizes the present experience and essential worth of the whole person, promotes creativity, intentionalism, free choice, and spontaneity, and fosters the belief that people can solve their own psychological problems.
Grew to be popular in 1950’s and early 1960’s
Emerged from Existentialism (approach to understanding a person’s most immediate experience, the conditions the person’s existence, and necessity of freedom of choice) -"get inside each person’s world" -understand how individuals live, move, and experiences his/her being in the world -value consciousness and personal responsibility -Freedom to accept responsibility --- one must make oneself
Humanists -stress unique capacities of the individual for self-realization and personal growth -study of choice, joy, love, creativity, and authenticity -DO NOT see humans beginning life with blank slate, instead the aim of life is an unfolding of inherent powers present in human nature. -stress human aspects of experience; personal choice, interpersonal relationships, intentions, purposes, and spiritual experiences
Also emerged from Phenomenology (attitude of discovery encompassing a search for essential issues; emphasis on consciousness, necessity of describing experience, and a desire to grasp reality as each individual perceives it) -subjective approach to knowledge and understanding was a large contribution carried over to humanism -if wishing to understand a person, you must get inside his/her individual world of meaning--- this is done by showing empathy
Humanists seek to validate their findings through subjective experience rather than relying solely on impersonal, objective criteria such as statistical methods and experimental tests.
Emphasize the idiographic approach (belief that meaningful and generally applicable discoveries will come from understanding one case at a time)
Roger utilizes the Organismic Approach (human viewed as total being whose physical, psychological, and spiritual aspects cannot be separated except by artificial means) -person is placed first Roger’s theory of therapy is now usually called the Person-Centered approach (previously Client-Centered therapy) Rejected the conception of learning he attributed to most universities. "…unique element is that my therapy is based on a learning that is exponential and cognitive. (universities won’t accept view)…Universities think education goes on only from neck up. Not true! Education may be limited to that, but learning is something else" Basic Concepts General Actualizing Tendency- inherent tendency of the organism to develop all its capacities in ways which serve to maintain or enhance the organism -constructive biological tendency is the one central source of energy in the human Four characteristics: -organismic (natural, biological, inborn predisposition reflected in all functioning -active process (organisms always up to something, seeking food or sexual satisfaction, initiating, exploring, producing change in the environment, playing) -directional (inclines every form of life toward growth, self-regulation, fulfillment, reproduction, and independence from external control) -selective (not all potential is necessarily developed) Self-Actualization -person’s lifelong process of realizing own potential to become a fully functioning person -involves an increased openness to experience -person lives existentially (going w/ flow of moments in life, experience life here and now, not controlling future or living in past) -place full trust in own organismic intuitions: do what feels right -appreciation of free choice, creativity, trustworthiness of human nature, richness of life
Importance of Self (basic aspect of life) Self-Perceptions of what you are Ideal Self (the self a person most values and desires to be)–successfully pursuing the ideal self gives person feelings of worth Congruence with Experience When a person is in state of congruence, their self-concept and experiences relating to self are consistent. Actualizing tendency is whole and unified. Person shows maturity and psychological adjustment
Incongruence is inconsistency b/t self-concept and experiences relating to self. Maybe b/c of distorted or unrealistic beliefs. Might have denial. Distortion involves a reinterpretation of an experience so as to make it consistent w/ how one wants things to be. Innaccurate self-perceptions contribute to experiences of inner confusion, tension, and maladaptive behavior.
Personality Development: Some Favorable Conditions ' Abraham Maslow per Personality Theories (A La Carte)
'
' '
Humanist
Concerned with her and now. Be all one can be. Not past of future.
Emphasized self-actualization in personality functioning and development
Over all other concepts (oppose to Rodgers)
Reserved for a select few ( Rodgers = all have possibility)
Abused and neglected childhood
Victim of Prejudice
Suppressed Anger
Acknowledges sinister side of human nature
Mother cold., vicious, superstitiously religious, dedicated to make Abe. Miserable
Cat killer
Abe. came up with and supported: religion virulent form of superstitious.
Father absent at first
Later in life, Abe. and Pa becomes good friend
He is a father’s son
Opposed theories and other stuff from people like Fraud, and Adder
Inferiority Complex
Introduced to psycho. @ Cornell University.
Loved his first cousin Bertha, latter married her
Greatly influenced by Gestalt Psychologists
Founded by Max Wertheimer
Another big name = Kurt Koffka
Simple perceptions= whole made up of integrated parts
one could consider parts or whole, not both at once
"Laws of organization" -Explanation how parts are forming whole
Grouping similar object together to form a whole
Grouping proximal (similar) objects
Law of closure, incomplete object
Figure-ground rule — seems divided into a figure in the foreground displayed against a background
Vase and the face
'Motivation' — Process by which organisms are propelled toward goals
Drive — A simple tension that demands to be satisfied
Traditionally straight forward.. Maslow thinks not. (Maslow 1954)
'Needs' — Goal seeking for certain satisfactions that are sought by all humans regardless of their culture, environment, or generation.
Unique POV: A given behavior, thought, or feeling may occur at the behest of multiple motivations (Maslow 1954)
The needs a person experiences are universal, the methods used to satisfy them may be specific to the person’s culture
Enviro. Can determine the particular form of need satisfaction
Enviro. Over-rated

__________________
Born with personality is an accident but dying as a personality is an achievement.

Brother can you share the psycology notes in doc format its really a mess to copy, format and print . Kindy any one whosoever has may reply

i need clinical psychology scope notes plz help me

@farwadawood
you do not have to be worry about Clinical Psychology notes. This portion of Psychology is well written in many Psychology books, like as Zimbardo. If you still face any problem regarding this, let me inform I will upload these notes also.

@voltran
brother, these notes are not up to mark for required CSS Psychology Syllabus.
You should use these notes as for reference material. I think, you should go for some of the books of Psychology.

__________________
Born with personality is an accident but dying as a personality is an achievement.