What is Psychology?
 

Here I m going to start some notes for Psychology and will add more and more with time. And I hope other Pscychologists will also join me in my efforts. I have highlighted the names and topics of great importance so a new to Psychology should have some knowledge of it.

[B][COLOR="Red"][SIZE="4"]Psychology [/SIZE][/COLOR][/B]

The study of human behavior and mental processes. Psychology is sharply divided into applied and experimental areas. However, many fields are represented in both research and applied psychology.

Researchers in psychology study a wide range of areas. Cognitive research is often included as part of subdiscipline called cognitive science. This area examines central issues such as how mental process work, the relation between mind and brain, and the way in which biological transducing systems can convert physical regularities into perceptions of the world. Cognitive science is carved from the common ground shared by computer science, cognitive psychology, philosophy of mind, linguistics, neuropsychology, and cognitive anthropology. The study of human attention is a cognitive area that is central in the field. See also Cognition.

The study of consciousness involves such basic questions as

........the physiological basis of mental activity,
........the freedom of will, and the conscious and
........unconscious uses of memory.

[B]Social psychology[/B] includes the study of interactions between individuals and groups, as well as the effects of groups on the attitudes, opinions, and behavior of individuals. The field covers such topics as persuasion, conformity, obedience to authority, stereotyping, prejudice, and decision making in social contexts.

[B]Developmental psychology[/B] has three subfields: life-span development, child development, and aging. Most research in the area concentrates on child development, which examines the development of abilities, personality, social relations, and, essentially, every attribute and ability seen in adults.

A [B]clinical psychologist[/B] is usually known by the term psychologist, which in some states is a term that can be used only by a registered practitioner. A psychiatrist is a physician with a specialty in psychiatric treatment and, in most states, with certification as a psychiatrist by a board of medical examiners. A psychoanalyst is typically trained by a psychoanalytic institute in a version of the Freudian method of psychoanalysis. A large number of practitioners qualify both as psychoanalysts and psychiatrists.

[B]Neuropsychologists[/B] are usually psychologists, who may come from an experimental or a clinical background but who must go through certification as psychologists. They treat individuals who have psychological disorders with a clear neurological etiology, such as stroke.

[B]Clinical practice[/B] includes individual consultation with clients, group therapy, and work in clinics or with teams of health professionals. Psychological therapists work in many settings and on problems ranging from short-term crises and substance abuse, to psychosis and major disorders. While there are definite biases within each field, it is possible for a practitioner with any background to prefer behavior therapy, a humanistic approach, a Freudian (dynamic) approach, or an eclectic approach derived from these and other areas.

[B]Nonclinical professional[/B] work in psychology includes the human-factors element, which traditionally is applied to the design of the interface between a machine and its human operator. Cognitive engineering is a branch of applied psychology that deals mainly with software and hardware computer design. Industrial psychology also includes personnel selection and management and organizational planning and consulting.

The use of psychology in [B]forensic matters[/B] is a natural result of the fact that much of law is based on psychology. Psychologists have been involved in jury selection, organization of evidence, evaluation of eyewitness testimony, and presentation of material in court cases. Psychiatrists and psychologists are also called on to diagnose potential defendants for mental disorders and the ability to stand trial.

[COLOR="blue"][SIZE="3"][B]Development of Modern Psychology[/B][/SIZE][/COLOR]

The De anima of [B]Aristotle[/B] is considered the first monument of psychology as such, centered around the belief that the heart was the basis for mental activity. The foundations of modern psychology were laid by 17th-century philosopher [B]Thomas Hobbes[/B], who argued that scientific causes could be established for every sort of phenomenon through deductive reasoning. The mind-body theories of [B]Rene Descartes[/B], Baruch Spinoza, and [B]G. W. Leibniz[/B] were equally crucial in the development of modern psychology, where the human mind's relation to the body and its actions have been significant topics of debate.

In England the empirical method employed in modern psychological study originated in the work of [B]John Locke, George Berkeley, Thomas Reid, and David Hume. David Hartley, James Mill, John Stuart Mill, and Alexander Bain [/B]stressed the relation of physiology to psychology, an important development in the scientific techniques of modern psychology. Important contributions were made in the physiological understanding of human psychology by French philosopher [B]Condillac, F. J. Gall[/B], the German founder of phrenology, and French [B]surgeon Paul Broca[/B], who localized speech centers in the brain termed as Broca's area.

In the 19th cent., the laboratory work of [B]Ernst Heinrich Weber, Gustave Fechner, Wilhelm Wundt, Hermann von Helmholtz, and Edward Titchener [/B]helped to establish psychology as a scientific discipline—both through the use of the scientific method of research, and in the belief that mental processes could be quantified with careful research techniques. The principle of evolution, stemming from Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection, gave rise to what became known as [B]dynamic psychology[/B]. The new approach, presented by American psychologist William James in his Principles of Psychology (1890), looked at consciousness as an evolutionary process.

Out of the new orientation in psychology grew the clinical experiments in hysteria and hypnotism carried on by [B]J. M. Charcot and Pierre Janet in France[/B]. Sigmund Freud, in his influential theory of the unconscious, gave a new direction to psychology and laid the groundwork for the psychoanalytic model.[B] Freudian theory [/B]took psychology into such fields as education, anthropology, and medicine, and Freudian research methods became the foundations of clinical psychology.

The behaviorism of American psychologist John B. Watson was highly influential in the 1920s and 30s, with its suggestion that psychology should concern itself solely with sensory stimuli and behavioral reaction. Behaviorism has been important in modern psychology, particularly through the work of B. F. Skinner since the 1930s.

Equally important was the development of Gestalt psychology by German psychologists [B]Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler, and Max Wertheimer[/B]. Gestalt theory contended that the task of psychology was to study human thought and behavior as a whole, rather than breaking it down into isolated instances of stimulus and response.

Another influential school of psychology was developed in the 1950s and 60s by [B]Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers[/B]. Their humanistic theory asserts that people make rational, conscious decisions regarding their lives, and optimistically suggests that individuals tend to reach toward their greatest potential.

[B][COLOR="Blue"][SIZE="3"]Modern Psychology[/SIZE][/COLOR][/B]

[B]Modern psychology[/B] is divided into several subdisciplines, each based on differing models of behavior and mental processes. Psychologists work in a number of different settings, including universities and colleges, primary and secondary schools, government agencies, private industry, hospitals, clinics, and private practices. Recent years have seen a rise in the significance of applied psychology—as can be seen from the areas contemporary psychologists concern themselves with—with an attendant decline in the importance of psychology in academia. In the United States, clinical psychology has become a significant focus of the discipline, largely separate from psychological research. Clinical psychologists are responsible for the diagnosis and treatment of various psychological problems.

[B]Biological models of behavior[/B] have become increasingly prominent in psychological theory, particularly with the development of various tools—such as the positron emission tomography (PET) scan—for mapping the brain. The field of neuropsychology, which studies the brain and the connected nervous system, has been an outgrowth of this contemporary focus on biological explanations of human thought and behavior. Cognitive models, derived from the Gestalt school of psychology, focus on the various thinking processes which mediate between stimuli and responses.

[B]Educational psychology[/B], derived from the 18th and 19th cent. educational reforms of Friedrich W. Froebel, Johann Pestalozzi, and their follower Johann Herbart, was later expanded by G. Stanley Hall and by E. L. Thorndike. It is concerned with the development of improved methods of teaching and learning.

[B]Social psychology[/B], developed by British psychologists William McDougall and Havelock Ellis, studies the effects of various social environments on the individual. Some other branches of the field include developmental psychology, which studies the changes in thought and behavior through the course of life; experimental psychology, which is the laboratory research involved in the understanding of the mind; and personality psychology, which deals specifically with individual personality and the processes by which it is formed.

In recent years a number of new fields of psychology have emerged. [B]Industrial/organizational psychology[/B], emerging from social psychology, focuses on the workplace and considers such topics as job satisfaction, leadership, and productivity. Health psychology examines how psychological factors contribute to pathology, and demonstrates how psychology can contribute to recovery and illness prevention for such somatic disorders as heart disease, cancer, and diabetes. In environmental psychology, research focuses on how individuals react to their physical environments, and suggests improvements which may be beneficial to psychological health. Other new areas of psychology include [B]counseling psychology[/B], [B]school psychology, forensic psychology, and community psychology.[/B]


[url]http://www.answers.com/What%20is%20Psychology%3F[/url]

Dear Ms. Naqvi,

I worte a message to you. Don't know you received it or not. Kindly reply me. Here's the list of subjects i chose:

1. Public Administration, 2. Sociology, 3. Journalism, 4. International Relations, 5. Psychology including Experimental Psychology

My questions:
Are you also going to appear in March 2006 CSS exams.
What are your chosen subject.
As the time is very limited and its my first experience to appear in the exams and i have to get on going and start preparing.

Is this possibile to talk to you on phone, if you give me your number (you can send me your number in private message). As you are a senior member, i think you can guide me well.

Pls do reply.. hope to hear from you soon...

Regards
Viqar

Early Schools Of Psychologhy
 

FORMAL IDEAS about behaviour and mind in westren cultures besan with the classicial greek philosophers and have continued to this day as part of the fabric of psychologhy.psychologhy as a seperate area of study split away from philosophy a little over 100 years ago.THE sucess of expermintal method in the physical science encouraged some philosophers to think that mind and behvaiour could be studied with scientific methods.JAMES WUNDT AND the other psychologist of the time thaught of psychologhy as study of mind.THEY did expermients to find the law relating events in in the phiysicial world to a person mental experience of those events.THEY studied attention or the process by which we become aware of our some external events and they also did many experments in the area of imagery memory thinking and emotion.

IN THE FIRST DECOD of twentieth century psychologyist came to hold quite different views about the nature of mind and the best ways to study it.ABOUT THE SAME TIME fundamrntal questions were raised about what should be stuided in psychologhy,should psychologhy be the study of mind,should it study behaviour,aur should both mind and behaviour be included.

STRUCTURALISM
THIS EARLY school of psychologhy grew up around the ideas of WILHELM WANDUT in germany and was established atb cornell university in the united states by one of his student.THE GOAL of strusm was to find the elements units or elements which make up the mind.THEY thought as in chemistry , a first step in the study of mind should be description of the basis or elemests and unit of sensations.

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGHY

this school of psychologhy was founded in germany about 1912 by MAX WERTHEMIER AND HIS COLLEGES. THESE pioneer psychologhyist felt that structualist were wrong in thinking of the mind is being made of elements.the word gestault means''FORM'' AND they mentioned that mind should thought of as resulting from the whole pettren of sensory activity and the relationship and organization in this pattern.

FUNCTIONALISM

FUNCTIONALIST SUCH AS JHON DEWY AND HARVEY CARR, at the university of chicago proposed that psychologhy should study '' what mind and behaviour do. they were interested in the fact that mind and behaviour are adaptive they enable an individual to adjust to the changing enviorment.instead of limiting themselves to the description of and analaysis of mind they did experments on the ways in which learning memory problem solving and motivation help peoples and animals to adapt to the situation.

BEHAVIORISM

THIS SCHOOL of psychologhy orginted with jhon b watson who was for many years at jhon hopkin university.HE rejected mind as the subject of psychologhy and insisted that behaviour should be the subject of psychologhy.

PSYCHOANALYSIS

STRICTLY speaking psychoanalysis is not a school of psychologhy, but it has a great impact on the thinking of many psychologist.psychoanalysis was founded in vienna austria, by the sigmund freud.he devloped the theory of mind which tells us that much of what we do and think results from urges, or drive which seeks experission in behaviour and thought.

MODREN PERSPECTIVE

THE DISCOVERIES made by structual, gestault,and functional schools of psychologhy havew become part of general store of psychologhicial knowledege, but the schools have vanished. BEHAVIOURALISIM AND PSYCHOANALYSIS on the other hand are still in modified terms, among the current psychologhicial perspective. together with these hard survivior the new perspective which arises in the last fifty years or so give psychologhist a large variety of viewpoints to chosse from their task of describing and understanding behaviour.example of these newer view points include the biologicial,cognitive,developmental,humanistic,and social perspective.

DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE

THE developmental perspective is concerned with charasticis changes that occur in peoples as they mature.

HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
THE human perspective emphasis on the person sense of self .

LINK INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGHY BY RICHARD A KING.

regard

1.International Relations
2.Journalism
these are easy subjects vigar.Remember "God help those who help themselves"
Solve Past paper especially that subject you want to appear.

[QUOTE=Viqar]Dear Ms. Naqvi,

I worte a message to you. Don't know you received it or not. Kindly reply me. [/QUOTE]

Sorry Viqar I havent received your message to my inbox... I have read your post in bigner's section also. Welcome you on board and Inshallah you will find the help you r looking for.

[QUOTE}Here's the list of subjects i chose:
1. Public Administration, 100
2. Sociology, 100
3. Journalism, 100
4. International Relations, 100
5.[LIST][*]Psychology including Experimental Psychology[/LIST], 200[/QUOTE]

Very good selection no doubt, but if you will share your background knowledge, I mean your subjects in BA and Masters it will help me alot to add suggestions for you. You are sharing 400 marks with me, I changed Public Ad and IR at the end when form was going for submission, caz find IR bit difficult but no doubt I had no support like CSS FORUM before my first attempt. I first time visited the forum on 22nd June and registerd myself at first visit. I can help you for all these subjects. U can check my profile you will get about my scores of optionals in my first attempt CSS 2006.

[QUOTE] My questions:
Are you also going to appear in March 2006 CSS exams.
What are your chosen subject.
As the time is very limited and its my first experience to appear in the exams and i have to get on going and start preparing.[/QUOTE]
[LIST=1][*]No I m not going for CSS 2007, may go for 2008 but no surity for 2007[*]MY subjects are:[LIST][*]History of Indo Pak[/LIST][LIST][*]Psychology including Experimental Psychology[*]Sociology[*]Journalism[/LIST][/LIST]
Dont worry u have enough time to prepare the only thing is your will power. If you will make real and dedicated efforts you wil win success. Inshahallah.

[QUOTE]Is this possibile to talk to you on phone, if you give me your number (you can send me your number in private message). As you are a senior member, i think you can guide me well.[/QUOTE]

Sorry I never pass my number to anyone even not in IM's u can ask for any type of help on the forum and you will find me really helpful but sorry I cant share my number with you.

[QUOTE]Pls do reply.. hope to hear from you soon...
[/QUOTE]

Here's the reply and I have tried to answer each and ever line of your message. if something left you can ask it again.

Best Wishes and Regards.......

The Nervous System
 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM is divied into two main parts:
A CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
A PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM consists of the brain and spinal code,which lies within the bony cases of the skull and spine.THE parts of the nervous system outside the skull and spine made up the peripheral nervous system.THE PHERPHERIAL NERVOUS SYSTEM largely consists of the nerve fibers,or axon,which carry nervous impulses from the sensory recepter of the body inward to the nervous system and carry nervous impulses for the movement of the muscles and exication of certain glands outward from the central nervous system.THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM has TWO DIVISION:
THE SOMANTIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE SOMANTIC NERVOUS SYSTEM motor fiber activtes the striped muscles of the body,such as those that move the arms and legs,while the sensory fiber of this system come from the major receptar organs of the body,the eyes the ears,the touch receptor,and so on.

THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM MOTOR FIBERS activate the smooth muscles of the body such as the stomach,cause secretion from certain glands such as the salivery gland and regulate activity in the special type of muscles found in the heart.it is thus a smooth muscles, glanduater and heart muscles system.SENSORY FIBER in the autonamic system carry information from the internal bodily organs that is perceived as pain warmth cold or pressure.THE AUTOMAMIC SYSTEM in its turn has two subdivision:
THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
THE PARASYMPATHITC SYSTEM.

IN GENERAL the sympathitcs system is active in state of arousal and in streesful situation:the parasympathitics system is active in resting and quiet states.

SPINAL CODE AND BRAIN STEM,
THE SPINAL CODE AND BRAIN STEM are like a long stalk protuding from the higher part of the central nervous system the forebrain,THE BRAIN STEM consists of the three division:the medulla,the pons,and the midbrain.THE SPINAL CODE AND BRAIN STEM control and regulate bodily functions such as breathing that are necessary for life. They also begin the processing of the sensory information from the enviorment and provide pathways by which this information can be carried to the forebrain.Furthermore no movement of the body can occure witout the activation of the certain neurones,called moto neurones,in the spinal code and brain stem.The forebrain sends nerve impulses down pathways in the spinal cord and brain stem to excites the motoneurones.

CEREBELLUM
OFF TO THE back of the brain is a large complesx structure called the cereblum.This structure receive sensory and other outputs from the spinal code ,brain stem and forebrain;It process this information and then send outputs to many parts of the brain to help make our movement precise,coordinated and smooth.

RETICULAR FORMATION,
in the centre AND CORR OF THE brain stem running from medulla up to the mid brain is a compex region containing many small clumps of neurones and numbers of long and short fibers.The appeareance of this regin reminded early anatomist of this region thus this region was called the reticuller formation.The fibers and nerve cells of the reticuler formation concernend with corticial arousal are therefore known as the ascending reticuller activating system.

NEURONES
NERVOUS CELLS OR NEURONS are the information carriers of the nervous system. neurones came in many sizes and shapes,but they have certain features in common.Each has a cell body that contain the machinery to keep the nervous cell alive,and each has two types of fiber ,DENDRITES AND AXON
The dendrites are usually relatively short and have many branches,which receive stimulation from other neurones.THE axon on the other hand is often quiet long and its function is to conduct nerve impulses to other neurones or to musles and glands.SInce the dendrites and axon receive information that is then conducted along the axon.
NERVES IMPULSES
BY USING FINE WIRES OR or fluid filled glass tubes known as microelectrode,neurophysiologists have shown that nerves impulses are electrical events of very short duration that move along the axon.AS the electrical activity moving along the axon reaches and passes the microelectrodes The recording device receiving a quick sharp,electricial pulses this is the nerve impulse because it is brief and sharp,it is called the spike.when the neurone is resting and not conducting anerve impulse the inside of the cell has negative charge.A stimul which exicts the cell will make the inside charge a little less negative.
FOREBRAIN: THALAMUS
JUST ABOVE THE mid brain forming akind of expanded bulb on top of the brain stem, is the region of the forebrain known as thelamus. THE thelamus lies between the two cerabul hempashire and is covered by them.FOR this reason it cannot be seen from outside, and brain must be cut open to show it.THE talalmus contain many grouping of the nerve cell called nucles.SOME of these nucles received input from the seeing and heering and pressure pain temparture body position and tastes senses;
FOREBRAIN HYPOTHALAMUS AND PITUITARY GLAND:
LYING BELOW THE thalamus is the small vital area of the brain known as the hypothalamus.ITS importance to psycologhist is that it contain nucles and fiber tracts whioch are related to the motivation behaviour of biologhicial sort.SO HYPOTHALAMUS is playing vital role inthe regulation of the eternal enviorment of the body.THE term internal enviorment refers to the condition inside the body. especially the chemicial compasition of the blood and other fluid that bath body cells.BLOD temparture,the concentration of salt in the blood and the concentration of the chemical messenger called harmones and other chemicial in the body are monitiored and sensed by different specialized neurones in the hypothalamus.THE hypothalamus also receive report about the state of the internal enviorment from other bodily organ.THE nerves system is linked to the glandular system of the body by the connection between the hypothalamus and the pituatry gland.
FOREBRAIN;CEREBLUM
MOST OF WHAT WE SEE when we look at the brain is the outside of the large structure known as the cereblum.THE human cerebum waight about 1,400 grams.THE cerebulm is divided into two cereblu hempashire,one on each side of the head,by adeep cleft and fissure called the lognitidual fissure. each hempashire is covered by the cerebul cortex,a sheet of neurone averging aboutb one and half millimetersin thickness and contaning billion of neurones.AS you look out side the cereblum the cerebul cortex look likes rumpled piece of cloth with many ridges and valleys,ABOUT two third of the cerebal cortex is in the sulci and fissure of the brain and thus cannot be seen when we look at the brain.
FOREBRAIN LIMBIC SYSTEM
SOME OF THE nules of the thalamus and hypothalamus and cerebum are interconnected to form the kind of ring and border around the lower portion of the forebrain.this group of structure is known as the limbic system.

regards

Psychology
 

[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]Psychology is an [/B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic"][COLOR=windowtext][B]academic[/B][/COLOR][/URL][B] and [/B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science"][COLOR=windowtext][B]applied[/B][/COLOR][/URL][B] field involving the [/B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Study"][COLOR=windowtext][B]study[/B][/COLOR][/URL][B] of the human [/B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind"][COLOR=windowtext][B]mind[/B][/COLOR][/URL][B], brain, and [/B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior"][COLOR=windowtext][B]behavior[/B][/COLOR][/URL][B]. Psychology also refers to the application of such [/B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge"][COLOR=windowtext][B]knowledge[/B][/COLOR][/URL][B] to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' [/B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everyday_life"][COLOR=windowtext][B]daily lives[/B][/COLOR][/URL][B] and the treatment of [/B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_illness"][COLOR=windowtext][B]mental illness[/B][/COLOR][/URL][B].[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Psychology differs from [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]anthropology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]economics[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_science"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]political science[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]sociology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] in seeking to capture explanatory generalizations about the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_function"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]mental function[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and overt [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviour"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]behaviour[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] of individuals, while the other disciplines rely more heavily on field studies and historical methods for extracting descriptive generalizations. In practice, however, there is quite a lot of cross-fertilization that takes place among the various fields. Psychology differs from [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]biology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]neuroscience[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior, and of the overall processes of a system, and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves, though the subfield of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]neuropsychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] combines the study of the actual neural processes with the study of the mental effects they have subjectively produced.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]The word psychology comes from the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]ancient Greek[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] ψυχή, [/B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psyche"][COLOR=windowtext][B]psyche[/B][/COLOR][/URL][B] ("soul", "mind") and [/B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-logy"][COLOR=windowtext][B]logy[/B][/COLOR][/URL][B], study).[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]History[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph_Goclenius"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Rudolph Goclenius[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], a German scholastic philosopher, is credited with inventing the term 'psychology' (1590). The root of the word psychology ([/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psyche"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]psyche[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]) means "[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]soul[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]" in Greek, and psychology was sometimes considered a study of the soul (in a religious sense of this term). Psychology as a medical discipline can be seen in [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Willis"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Thomas Willis[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]' reference to psychology (the "Doctrine of the Soul") in terms of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_brain"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]brain function[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], as part of his [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1672"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]1672[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]anatomical[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] treatise "De Anima Brutorum" ("Two Discourses on the Souls of Brutes").[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Until about the end of the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_century"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]19th century[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], psychology was regarded as a branch of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]philosophy[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B].[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]In [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1879"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]1879[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Wilhelm Wundt[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] founded a laboratory at the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Leipzig[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] University in Germany specifically to focus on the study of psychology. [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]William James[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] later published his [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1890"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]1890[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] book, [/B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][B]Principles of Psychology[/B][/COLOR][/URL][B] which laid many of the foundations for the sorts of questions that [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]psychologists[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] would focus on for years to come. Other important early contributors to the field include [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Hermann Ebbinghaus[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] (a pioneer in studies on [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]memory[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]) and the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Russian[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Ivan Pavlov[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] (who discovered the learning process of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]classical conditioning[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]).[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Meanwhile, [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Sigmund Freud[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], who was trained as a neurologist and had no formal training in experimental psychology, had invented and applied a method of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotherapy"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]psychotherapy[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] known as [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]psychoanalysis[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]. Freud's understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introspection"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]introspection[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], but was particularly focused on resolving mental distress and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]psychopathology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]. Freud's theories were wildly successful, not least because they aimed to be of practical benefit to individual patients, but also because they tackled subjects such as [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sexuality"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]sexuality[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_repression"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]repression[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taboo"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]taboo[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Although it has become fashionable to discredit many of Freud's more outlandish theories, his application of psychology to clinical work and his more mainstream work has been massively influential.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Partly as a reaction to the subjective and introspective nature of psychology at the time, [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]behaviourism[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] began to become popular as a guiding psychological theory. Championed by [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]psychologists[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] such as [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Watson"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]John B. Watson[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Edward Thorndike[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinner"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]B.F. Skinner[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], behaviorists argued that psychology should be a science of behaviour, not the mind, they rejected the idea that internal mental states such as [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]beliefs[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]desires[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B], or goals, could be studied scientifically. In his paper "Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It" (1913), Watson argued that psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science", "introspection forms no essential part of its methods" and "The behaviourist recognizes no dividing line between man and brute".[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Behaviourism was the dominant model in psychology for much of the early 20th century, largely due to the creation and successful application (not least of which in [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]advertising[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]) of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditioning"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]conditioning[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] theories as scientific models of human behaviour.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]However, it became increasingly clear that although behaviourism had made some important discoveries, it was deficient as a guiding theory of human behaviour. [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Noam Chomsky[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]'s review of Skinner's book [/B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_Behavior"][COLOR=windowtext][B]Verbal Behavior[/B][/COLOR][/URL][B] (that aimed to explain [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_acquisition"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]language acquisition[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] in a behaviourist framework) is considered one of the major factors in the ending of behaviourism's reign. Chomsky demonstrated that language could not purely be learnt from conditioning, as people could produce sentences unique in structure and meaning that couldn't possibly be generated solely through experience of natural language, implying that there must be internal states of mind that behaviourism rejected as illusory. Similarly, work by [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Bandura"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Albert Bandura[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] showed that children could [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]learn by social observation[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B], without any change in overt behaviour, and so must be accounted for by internal representations.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Humanistic psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] emerged in the 1950s and has continued as a reaction to [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]positivist[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and scientific approaches to the mind. It stresses a [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]phenomenological[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] view of human experience and seeks to understand human beings and their behaviour by conducting [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_psychological_research"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]qualitative research[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]. The humanistic approach has its roots in [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]existentialist[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]phenomenological[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] philosophy and many humanist psychologists completely reject a scientific approach, arguing that trying to turn human experience into measurements strips it of all meaning and relevance to lived existence.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Some of the founding theorists behind this school of thought were [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslow"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Abraham Maslow[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] who formulated a [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]hierarchy of human needs[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogers"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Carl Rogers[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] who created and developed client-centred therapy, and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Perls"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Fritz Perls[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] who helped create and develop [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_therapy"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Gestalt therapy[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B].[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]The rise of computer technology also promoted the metaphor of mental function as [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processing"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]information processing[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as well as a belief in internal mental states, led to the rise of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivism_%28psychology%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]cognitivism[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] as the dominant model of the mind.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Links between [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]brain[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]nervous system[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] function were also becoming common, partly due to the experimental work of people like [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sherrington"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Charles Sherrington[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Olding_Hebb"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Donald Hebb[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], and partly due to studies of people with [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_injury"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]brain injury[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] (see [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuropsychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]cognitive neuropsychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]). With the development of technologies for accurately measuring brain function, [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]neuropsychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]cognitive neuroscience[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] have become some of the most active areas in contemporary psychology.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]With the increasing involvement of other disciplines (such as [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]philosophy[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]computer science[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]neuroscience[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]) in the quest to understand the mind, the umbrella discipline of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]cognitive science[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] has been created as a means of focusing such efforts in a constructive way.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]However, many psychologists have not been happy with what they perceive as 'mechanical' models of the mind and human nature. Coming full circle, [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpersonal_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Transpersonal psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_Psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Analytical Psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Carl Jung[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] seek to return psychology to its spiritual roots. Others, such as [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serge_Moscovici"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Serge Moscovici[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_Duveen"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Gerard Duveen[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B], argue that behaviour and thought are essentially social in nature and seek to embed psychology in a broader social scientific study that incorporates the social meaning of experience and behaviour.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Principles[/FONT][/B]

[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Mind and brain[/FONT][/B]

[B][B][FONT=Times New Roman][B]Psychology describes and attempts to explain consciousness, behavior and social interaction. Empirical psychology is primarily devoted to describing human experience and behaviour as it actually occurs. In the past 20 years or so psychology has begun to examine the relationship between consciousness and the [/B][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][B]brain[/B][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][B] or [/B][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][B]nervous system[/B][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][B]. It is still not clear in what ways these interact: does consciousness determine brain states or do brain states determine consciousness - or are both going on in various ways - or is consciousness some sort of complicated 'illusion' which bears no direct relationship to neural processes? An understanding of brain function is increasingly being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as [/B][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][B]artificial intelligence[/B][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][B], [/B][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][B]neuropsychology[/B][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][B], and [/B][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][B]cognitive neuroscience[/B][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][B].[/B][/FONT][/B][/B]

[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Schools of thought[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of human behavior can be explained. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]psychologists[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] may think of themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Scope of psychology[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Psychology is an extremely broad field, encompassing many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that comprise psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be found at the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychological_topics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]list of psychological topics[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychology_disciplines"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]list of psychology disciplines[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B].[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Research psychology[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Research psychology encompasses the study of behavior for use in [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]academic[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] settings, and contains numerous areas. It contains the areas of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abnormal_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]abnormal psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]biological psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]cognitive psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]comparative psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]developmental psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]personality psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]social psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and others. Research psychology is contrasted with [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]applied psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B].[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Abnormal psychology[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abnormal_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Abnormal psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] is the study of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abnormal"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]abnormal[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] psychological behavior in order to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Abnormal psychology studies the nature of psychopathology and its causes, and this knowledge is applied to treating patients with psychological disorders in [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]clinical psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B].[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]The [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], published by the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]American Psychiatric Association[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], is the handbook used most often in diagnosing mental disorders in the United States.The current version of the book is known as DSM IV-TR. It lists a set of disorders and provides detailed descriptions on what constitutes a disorder, such as [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Major_Depression&action=edit"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Major Depression[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] or [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety_Disorder"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Anxiety Disorder[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B].[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Biological psychology[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental states. Because all behavior is controlled by the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]central nervous system[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], it is sensible to study how the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]brain[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] functions in order to understand behavior. This is the approach taken in [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]behavioral neuroscience[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]cognitive neuroscience[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]neuropsychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]. Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]brain[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] relate to specific behavioral and psychological processes. Often neuropsychologists are employed as scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge. Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_injury"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]brain injury[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] in an attempt to work out normal psychological function.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]The approach of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]cognitive neuroscience[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] to studying the link between brain and behavior is to use [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroimaging"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]neuroimaging[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] tools, such as [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FMRI"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]fMRI[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B], to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Cognitive psychology[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]The nature of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]thought[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] is another core interest in psychology. [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Cognitive psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] studies [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]cognition[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_function"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]mental processes[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] underlying behavior. It uses [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processing"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]information processing[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] as a framework for understanding the mind. [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Perception[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]learning[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]problem solving[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]memory[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]attention[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]language[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]emotion[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivism_%28psychology%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]cognitivism[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], whose adherents argue for an [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processing"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]information processing[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] model of mental function, informed by [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]positivism[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]experimental psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B].[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Cognitive science[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] is very closely related to cognitive psychology, but differs in some of the research methods used, and has a slightly greater emphasis on explaining mental phenomena in terms of both behavior and neural processing.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Both areas use [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_simulation"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]computational models[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] to simulate phenomena of interest. Because mental events cannot directly be observed, computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind. Such models give cognitive psychologists a way to study the "software" of mental processes independent of the "hardware" it runs on, be it the brain or a computer.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Comparative psychology[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Comparative psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]animals[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] other than human beings. It is related to disciplines outside of psychology that study animal behavior, such as [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]ethology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]. Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans, the behavior and mental processes of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]animals[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] is also an important part of psychological research, either as a subject in its own right (e.g., [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_cognition"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]animal cognition[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and ethology), or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology (e.g., [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_neuroscience"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]affective neuroscience[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neuroscience"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]social neuroscience[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]).[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Developmental psychology[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]developmental psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_development"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]moral development[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of small infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aging"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]aging[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urie_Bronfenbrenner"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Urie Bronfenbrenner[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]'s theory of development in context (The Ecology of Human Development - [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0674224566"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]ISBN 0-674-22456-6[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]) is influential in this field, as are those mentioned in "Educational psychology" immediately below, as well as many others. Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of theorists in scientific psychology to inform their research.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Personality psychology[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Personality psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] studies enduring psychological patterns of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]behavior[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]thought[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]emotion[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], commonly called an individual's [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]personality[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]. Theories of personality vary between different psychological schools. [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_theory"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Trait theories[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] attempts to break personality down into a number of traits, by use of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factor_analysis"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]factor analysis[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]. The number of traits have varied between theories. One of the first, and smallest, models was that of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Hans Eysenck[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], which had three dimensions: [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]extraversion[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]—[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introversion"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]introversion[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]neuroticism[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]—[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]emotional stability[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoticism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]psychoticism[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]. [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Cattell"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Raymond Cattell[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] proposed a theory of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16_Personality_Factors"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]16 personality factors[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]. The theory that has most empirical evidence behind it today may be the "[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Big Five[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]" theory, proposed by [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Goldberg"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Lewis Goldberg[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] and others.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]A different, but well known, approach to personality is that of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Sigmund Freud[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], whose structural theory of personality divided personality into the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego%2C_superego%2C_and_id"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]ego, superego, and id[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]. Freud's theory of personality has been criticized by many, including many mainstream psychologists.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Social psychology[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Social psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. For example, this could involve the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g., [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformity_%28psychology%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]conformity[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] or [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasion"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]persuasion[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]), the perception and understanding of social cues, or the formation of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_%28psychology%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]attitudes[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] or [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]stereotypes[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] about other people. [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_cognition"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Social cognition[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] is a common approach and involves a mostly cognitive and scientific approach to understanding social behavior.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]A related area is [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]community psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], which examines psychological and mental health issues on the level of the community rather than using the individual as the unit of measurement. "[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_of_community"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Sense of community[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]" has become its conceptual center (Sarason, 1986; Chavis & Pretty, 1999).[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Applied psychology[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Applied psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] encompasses both psychological research that is designed to help individuals overcome practical problems and the application of this research in applied settings. Much of applied psychology research is utilized in other fields, such as [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_management"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]business management[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_design"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]product design[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergonomics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]ergonomics[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrition"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]nutrition[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_medicine"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]clinical medicine[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]. [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Applied psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] includes the areas of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]clinical psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]industrial and organizational psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_factors"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]human factors[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]forensic psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]health psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]school psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] and others.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Clinical psychology[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Clinical psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] is the application of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abnormal_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]abnormal psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] research to the understanding, treatment, and assessment of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]psychopathology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], including behavioral and mental health issues. It has traditionally been associated with [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counseling"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]counseling[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotherapy"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]psychotherapy[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], although modern clinical psychology may take an eclectic approach, including a number of therapeutic approaches. Typically, although working with many of the same clients as [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]psychiatrists[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], clinical psychologists do not prescribe psychiatric drugs. Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_injury"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]brain injury[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]. This area is known as [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_neuropsychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]clinical neuropsychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B].[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]In recent years and particularly in the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]United States[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], a major split has been developing between academic research psychologists in universities and some branches of clinical psychology. Many research psychologists believe that many contemporary clinicians use therapies based on discredited theories and unsupported by empirical evidence of their effectiveness. From the other side, these clinicians believe that the research psychologists are ignoring their experience in dealing with actual patients. The disagreement resulted in the formation of the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Psychological_Science"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Association for Psychological Science[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] by the research psychologists as a new body distinct from the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychological_Association"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]American Psychological Association[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B].[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]The majority of work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be done inside a Cognitive-Behaviorial therapy (CBT) framework. CBT is an umbrella term that refers to a number of therapies which focus on changing cognitions and/or behaviors, rather than changing behavior exclusively, or discovering the unconscious causes of psychopatholgy (as in the psychodynamic school). The two most famous CBT therapies are Aaron T. Beck's [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_therapy"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]cognitive therapy[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and Albert Ellis's [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_emotive_behaviour_therapy"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]rational emotive behaviour therapy[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] (with cognitive therapy being, by far, the most extensively studied therapy in contemporary clinical psychology).[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Counseling psychology[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counseling_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Counseling psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] as a psychological specialty facilitates personal and interpersonal functioning across the life span with a focus on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns. Counseling psychology differes from clinical psychology in that it is focused more on normal developmental issues and everyday [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]stress[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] as opposed to severe mental disorders. Counseling psychologists are employed in a variety of settings, including universities, private practice, businesses, and community mental health centers.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Educational psychology[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Educational psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] is the study of how humans learn in [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]educational[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]social psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]schools[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] as organizations. The work of child psychologists such as [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Lev Vygotsky[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Jean Piaget[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Bruner"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Jerome Bruner[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] has been influential in creating [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]teaching[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] methods and educational practices.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Forensic psychology[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Forensic psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] is the area concerned with the application of psychological methods and principles to the legal arena. Most typically, forensic psychology involves a clinical analysis of a particular individual and an assessment of some specific psycho-legal question. Typically, referrals to forensic practices constitute assessments for individuals that have ostensibly suffered neurologic insult(s). These patients have sought legal recourse, and the job of the forensic psychologist is to demonstrate that there is or is not (depending on their employ by either the prosecution or defense) a cause-and-effect relation between the accident and the subsequent (again, ostensible) neurologic change. A job required of the forensic psychologist in any case is the detection of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malingering"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]malingering[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], although this is not exclusive to forensics. Malingering, or the detection of 'faking' (this term is used somewhat liberally) is particularly germane to a forensic assessment, for obvious reasons. In addition to such applied practices, it also includes academic or empirical research on topics involving the relationship of law to human mental processes and behavior (see also [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]legal psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]).[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Health psychology[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Health psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] is the application of psychological theory and research to health, illness and health care. Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]health psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behavior including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]quality of life[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] or in research into the psychological impact of health and social care.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Human factors psychology[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_factors"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Human factors psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] is the study of how cognitive and psychological processes affect our interaction with tools and objects in the environment. The goal of research in human factors psychology is to better design objects by taking into account the limitations and biases of human mental processes and behavior.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Industrial and organizational psychology[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Industrial and organizational psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] focuses to varying degrees on the psychology of the workforce, customer, and consumer, including issues such as the psychology of:[/B][/FONT][/SIZE][LIST][*][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]recruitment, selection and training; [/B][/FONT][/SIZE][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]job performance and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_management"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]appraisal of performance[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]; [/B][/FONT][/SIZE][*][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]job satisfaction; [/B][/FONT][/SIZE][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]factors of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]motivation[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] including pay and working conditions; [/B][/FONT][/SIZE][*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_management"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]change management[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]; [/B][/FONT][/SIZE][*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_behavior"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]work behavior[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]; [/B][/FONT][/SIZE][*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_%28medicine%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]stress[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] at work; [/B][/FONT][/SIZE][*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership#Specific_theories_of_leadership"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]leadership[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]; and [/B][/FONT][/SIZE][*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]management[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]. [/B][/FONT][/SIZE][/LIST][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]Applications of industrial psychology include improving human performance and satisfaction in the workplace, as well as the improvement of organizational performance. The primary purpose of industrial psychologists is integration of psychometric research into applications that achieve these ends. (Bradberry and Greaves, 2005)[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]School psychology[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]School psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] is the area of discipline in order to help children and youth succeed academically, socially, and emotionally. School psychologists collaborate with educators, parents, and other professionals to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning environments for all students that strengthen connections between home and school (NASPonline.com, 2006).[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Research methods[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt was a German psychologist, generally acknowledged as a founder of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]experimental psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B].[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Research in psychology is conducted in broad accord with the standards of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]scientific method[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], encompassing both [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_research"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]qualitative[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]ethological[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_psychological_research"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]quantitative statistical[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] modalities to generate and evaluate [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_explanation"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]explanatory[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]hypotheses[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] with regard to psychological [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pheneomenon&action=edit"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]phenomena[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]. Where research ethics and the state of development in a given research domain permits, investigation may be pursued by [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]experimental[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] protocols. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand psychological phenomena. [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_psychological_research"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Qualitative psychological research[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] utilizes a broad spectrum of observational methods, including [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_research"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]action research[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethography"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]ethography[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnography"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]ethnography[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploratory_statistics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]exploratory statistics[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_interview"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]structured[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_history"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]unstructured[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interview"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]interviews[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participant_observation"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]participant observation[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], to enable the gathering of rich information unattainable by classical experimentation. Research in [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]humanistic psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] is more typically pursued by [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnography"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]ethnographic[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_method"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]historical[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B], and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]historiographic[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] methods.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]The [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_testing"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]testing[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] of different aspects of psychological function is a significant area of contemporary psychology. [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychometrics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Psychometric[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]statistical[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] methods predominate, including various well-known standardised tests as well as those created ad hoc as the situation or experiment requires.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][/SIZE][/FONT]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]Academic psychologists may focus purely on research and psychological theory, aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while other psychologists may work in [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]applied psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B] to deploy such knowledge for immediate and practical benefit. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most psychologists will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some point during their work. Clinical psychology, among many of the various discipline of psychology, aims at developing in practicing psychologists knowledge of and experience with research and experimental methods which they will continue to build up as well as employ as they treat individuals with psychological issues or use psychology to help others.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][/FONT][/SIZE]
[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]When an area of interest requires specific training and specialist knowledge, especially in applied areas, psychological associations normally establish a governing body to manage training requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for university degrees in psychology, so that students acquire an adequate knowledge in a number of areas. Additionally, areas of practical psychology, where psychologists offer treatment to others, may require that psychologists be licensed by government regulatory bodies as well.[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman] [/FONT][/B]

[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Controlled experiments[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinner"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]B.F. Skinner[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] was an American psychologist and pioneer of [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]experimental psychology[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]behaviorism[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B].[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]The majority of psychological research is conducted in the [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]laboratory[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] under controlled conditons. This method of research relies completely on the scientific method to determine the basis of behavior. Common measurements of behavior include [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_time"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]reaction time[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] and various [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychometrics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]psychometric[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B] measurements. Experiments are conducted to test a particular [/B][/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][B]hypothesis[/B][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B].[/B][/FONT][/SIZE]
[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT='Times New Roman'][B]As an example of a psychological experiment, one may want to test people's perception of different [/B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone"][COLOR=windowtext][B]tones[/B][/COLOR][/URL][B]. Specifically, one could ask the following question: is it easier for people to discriminate one pair of tones from another depending upon their frequency? To answer this, one would want to disprove the hypothesis that all tones are equally discriminable, regardless of their frequency. (See [/B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis_testing"][COLOR=windowtext][B]hypothesis testing[/B][/COLOR][/URL][B] for an explanation of why one would disprove a hypothesis rather than attempt to prove one.) A task to test this hypothesis would have a participant seated in a room listening to a series of tones. If the participant would make one indication (by pressing a button, for example) if they thought the tones were two different sounds, and another indication if they thought they were the same sound. The proportion of correct responses would be the measurement used to describe whether or not all the tones were equally discriminable. The result of this particular experiment would probably indicate better discrimination of certain tones based on the human [/B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_threshold_of_hearing"][COLOR=windowtext][B]threshold of hearing[/B][/COLOR][/URL][B].[/B][/FONT]

thanks gr8khalil for the nice tip... it really would help me but what books should be consulted for psychology and journalism.

i have bought "Mass Communication Theory & Practice by Prof. Dr. M. A. Hijazi and Prof. G. M. Naqqash". what u think about this book.

I am trying to memorise the subjects now.... wish me luck, tell me will u be going to appear in this march css exams.