comments, suggestions and criticism is strongly encouraged.

group therapies

group dynamics

group therapy:

a therapeutic process conducted in a group of individuals.

Introduction: there are many psychotherapies i.e a therapeutic process which is based on assumption that psychological disorder is a result of behavioural and thinking disorders. amongst them is a psychotherapy called group therapy.

Characteristics of group therapy
• Often an individual, client or patient is informed of the disorder from the group leader
• Many individuals in the group are passing through different stages of recovery. This serves as an incentive for the individual at the elementary level of recovery
• In a group, individuals feel that they have something to offer to others and receive from others. So altruistic feelings develop.
• This also provides an opportunity for individuals to realize their deficiencies. For e.g if too many people in a group complain of a certain person’s self centredness, it helps him to identify his problem
• More often, many people feel that they are the only ones in pain or distress. But group therapy helps them to identify that they are not alone.
• A number of times, individuals in group begin to identify other members as their other family and respond likewise.
• Group therapy, thus, provides an opportunity to the individuals to develop their socialization abilities i.e communication skills, leaderships skills etc.
• Group therapy gives an individual an experience of working with others and inculcates the habit of coordination, cooperation, tolerance etc.


Types of group therapies

a) Family therapy: a relatively common type of group therapy is family therapy. In this case, the therapist identifies the importance of family. This is based on the assumption that the problems arise and are also directed towards the family. No doubt, an individual feels depressed when his friends fail to come upto his expectations. but it is nothing compared to the agony one experiences over marital breakdown, losing child top drug abuse, or parental desertion. In this therapy, family is involved in the procedure. therapist often makes suggestions to the family to make relevant adjustments. In this regard problems such obesity , drug abuse have shown a significant decline by parental involvement.

b) Self help therapy: in this type of group therapy, individuals do not hire any experienced or qualified therapist. The basic purpose of this therapy is to identify themselves with other individuals experiencing similar issues. For e.g alcohol therapy or drug therapy methods. Individuals with such problems often meet and discuss their common issues, trying to help out others and seeking help and cooperation in return.

c) Couple therapy: in recent times, another type of group therapy has gained significant importance called as couple therapy. In this therapy married, unmarried couples often seek professional help in matters relating to marital conflicts, issues such as mistrust, suspicion, physical inabilities, job demands, conflict on decisions relating to children etc.

Positive effect of group therapy
• It is an inexpensive method
• It allows individuals to develop interpersonal skills
• Individuals often form relationships with other individuals in this therapy which often persists for long time.

Negative effect of group therapy
• Individual attention is absent
• Shy and introvert individuals do not benefit much from the procedure
• Submissive individuals give into the pressure of dominating individuals.

Critical analysis:
Group therapy is a psychotherapy conducted in group of individuals. It is characterized by a feeling of unity, solidarity, altruism and self identification. It helps them to develop interpersonal skills and to solve the problem in a amicable environment.

Dear Good Effort,But what subject is this?

__________________
God has sent us to do something special,Life is once for all but not to be Repeated by a pendulum.

@ comp engr it is psychology. this question has come multitude times in past papers.

comments, criticism and suggestions are strongly encouraged


Q.6. Discuss the essential characteristics of client-centered therapy

Introduction:
Carl rogers introduced client centred therapy. it was introduced as a reaction to the psychoanalysis in 1951, and behavioural therapy with a few modificationsin 1966 and 1968.this is a indirect and no-directive therapeutic process. He stressed that individuals have a control over their actions. This therapy does not lay much emphasis on past experiences. In the therapy, the therapist adopts an emphatic attitude towards the client in helping him realize the problem and through self regard boosts his confidence so he may sort out the problem.

Goals of humanistic therapy
• Therapist allows the individual to identify his problem.
• The therapist should not be directive in his role
• client should develop adjustability in view of situation
• he should take conducive steps to solve the problem
• to minimize the gap between the real self and the ideal self

Principles of CCT

Identification of problem:
On first glance, every individual has a positive, warm and affable personality. Until and unless a person identifies that there is something wrong in his conduct, he will not make sincere attempts of rectifying it.

Self concept: every individual has a certain view of himself. This view is often regarded as the self concept. For e.g a teacher holds his/ her view as a respectable educator.

Discrepancy: just as an individual holds a view of himself, so the others also have a certain image of him. Under ideal conditions, there is a balance between the self concept and the real image. But in case of disorders, this balance becomes unstable. For e.g a theif may think that he is an innovator and a clever person rather than acknowledging himself as disrupting social norms and laws.

Basic Need: every person wants that he should be treated in a respectable manner. He should be given love, respect, dignity and over all treated well.

Positive self regard: unconditional self regard is a very important concept of the therapy. according to the concept an individual should be given unconditional self regard. This often boosts his confidence and helps him to identify his latent abilities.

CCT and recent trends

In recent times, therapists have used up self decision making therapy. in this technique, clients are shown a pack of ten cards containing the problem statement. The client is then asked to rearrange the cards in hierarchy from lowest to highest in the order of their increasing intensity. Then the individual is encouraged to try to sort out the issues from the least intense to the most intense problem. This enables the individual to utilize his innate abilities.
After a number of weeks, he is encouraged to give a list of the problems that he views as being highly disturbing. The technique is then repeated.

Criticism: this therapy has been lauded for its humanistic approach to the problem. It also has an edge over other therapies as in this case, individual is not directed rather he finds his own way out of the issue. The positive self regard is very important for the individual in uplifting his moral spirit and boosting his overall confidence. This also encourages him to utilize his latent abilities.
Humanistic therapy has also been criticized as it does not gives much attention to the past experiences which give rise to the issues. As this involves the identification of problem, followed by encouragement to solve the issue, it may be time consuming and also expensive.

comments, criticism and suggestions are strongly encouraged.

q.5 List and briefly describe different techniques of behaviour therapy.

behaviour therapy: use of learning techniques to eliminate unwanted behaviour.
Introduction:

Behaviour therapy often employs learning techniques in order to improve behaviour. Children learn things which may affect their behaviour positively or negatively. Inappropriate learning can produce behavioural problems. Such problems can be sorted out by using learning techniques in a positive direction. It often uses techniques such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning etc

a) Classical conditioning: Pavlov conducted experiments of classical conditioning on dog. He observed that an unconditioned stimulus upon pairing with a natural stimulus can elicit a similar response. This technique can be employed in behavioural therapy in following ways

i) Aversive technique: classical conditioning can be used in aversion of undesirable habits and behaviours. For e.g if someone is accustomed to drinking, the habit can be changed by mixing alcohol with any vomiting inducing substance. Such an experience would refrain the individual from drinking again

ii) Desensitization: in this technique, the ability of a stimulus to evoke a fearful response is minimized. In this method therapist encourages the patient to idealize any least undesirable situation and asks him to go on with the practice from least undesirable to the most undesirable situation. If the patient hesitates anywhere, he is given suitable suggestions to handle the situation. After the individual successfully handles the situation in his imagination, he is given a chance to practically deal with the situation and overcome his fright and hesitation. This technique may be useful for individuals with exam phobia.

iii) Biofeedback: in this method, individuals are provided information about their biological processes and encouraged to overcome behavioural abnormalities for e.g if an individual feels fearful about interviews, his hands and feet start trembling, heart beat escalates, profusely sweats, blabbers and stammers. Then the situation can be handled by providing him information about his biological process and helping him in controlling it.

Observational method: bandura conducted experiments on observational methods. He concluded that many a times, individuals learn behaviour by observing. This observational method can be positively used to rectify behavioural problems. For e.g a child is fearful of animals and mere sight causes him to burst into tears. the behaviour can be modified by showing him another child who is playful towards animals through tv or in real.

Operant conditioning: skinner conducted experiments on operant conditioning and identified a number of techniques. these techniques can be useful in rectifying behaviour.

Modeling: perhaps the most significant way to modify behaviour is through modeling. In this method individual is presented with some ideal through electronic media or in real life and he is encouraged to follow his behaviour.

Token economics: in token economics, gifts that are much needed by the patients are used as a reinforcement to modify the behaviour for eg studies conducted showed that people with schizophrenia loved to listen to music and watch movies in a hospital. They were asked that they could earn token for the said entertainment if they exhibited good behaviour such as maintaining cleanliness, taking medicine in time, eating regular meals. This method has been known to be very productive in modifying behaviour.

Reinforcement: the most important factor of operant conditioning is reinforcement. This may be positive or negative. Both of these can help the individual in modifying his behaviour. E.g an aggressive child with poor sight refused to wear glasses. Whenever he was presented with glasses, he broke them. He was gifted a number of toys along with a wooden spectacles. Whenever he approached spectacles, he was given some sweet as a reinforcement. This encouraged him to finally start using the glasses 12 hours a day.

Negative reinforcement can serve as a deterrent of a faulty behaviour. If a child gets punishment such as doing his homework a number of times in response to maladaptive behaviour or scoring little in test, this can modify the behaviour.

Cognitive behaviour therapy
Most of the behaviour therapies do not lay much emphasis on cognition which is the process of thinking and understanding. Cognitive behaviour therapy makes use of cognition in modifying the behaviour instead of relying on learning.
Cognitive behaviour therapy includes both cognitive emotive therapy and R.E.B.T.

CRITICISM
• The therapy has been criticized for its focus on overt behaviour only without considering the root cause
• Use of negative reinforcement is harsh and punitive way of treating a patient
• Positive reinforcement cannot create a long-term positive behaviour. As soon as reinforcement dissappears so does the behaviour
• Observational learning therapy does not take into consider the humanistic approach. Rather, it has adopted a mechanical approach of human being.
• Classical condition can only be used to modify behaviour with biological basis.

Hey! Go for it. It's a brilliant thing to do as I have Psychology as one of my elective subject as well. (Y)

@ all .please dear bother to comment, criticise or pass sutiable suggestions. i am not posting my answers for nothing. i want some sort of a response. kindly people.

Q7 describe the role of biological and sociological factors in development of maladujustment and criminal behaviour and explain the treatment strategies.

“Violation of standard legal codes is known as criminal behaviour”

Introduction:

Every society has some legal codes, when individuals exhibit a behaviour which violates the legal standards of a society, it is called as a criminal behaviour. There are many biological and sociological factors associated with such a negative tendency.

Biological factors
a) Genetic factors: there is significant evidence to show that there is an association between genetic factors and criminal behaviour. Relevance of genetic factors with criminal offending and property theft was verified but there was no accepted evidence on relevance of the genetic factors with violent behaviour such as murder etc.

Experiments were conducted to show relevance of zygosity with criminal disposition. Experiment was carried out on 216 monozygotes and 214 dizygotes. It showed that 70% dizygotes exhibited such a negative tendency, whereas 33% of monozygotes showed miscreant attitude. In addition, it is also believed that individuals with chromosomal abnormality XYY are more likely to show negative behaviour.

b) Neurotransmitters: studies have been conducted to observe the effect of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrin and dopamine on criminal behaviour. Studies showed that there was a strong relevance of low serotonin with violent behaviour, moderate linkage of norepinephrin, and virtually no linkage of dopamine with the criminal approach.

Researchers also tried to determine the effect of cortisol and testosterone on the criminal activities of individuals. Criminologists observed that there was a relatively high level of testosterone found in prison inmates than the general public.

c) Injury: effect of injury on criminal behaviour has also been highlighted. It has been observed that if there is neurological disturbance, then it causes frustration which is often finds an outlet in the form of violent outbursts. Particularly, in this regard injury to prefrontal lobe due to accident, trauma, anoxia at childbirth, disease or toxin effect is significant. Prefrontal lobe is known to control negative feelings such as aggression, frustration, anger etc. with damage to the critical part, such inhibitions are unrestrained.


Sociological factors
The inability to act according to the established standard legal codes shows the deficiency in internalization process. Therefore, it is imperative to study the agents of socialization and other numerous factors leading to criminal offences

Agents of socialization
a) Family: perhaps, the most important factor which leads to the criminal tendency is the family system. often, loss of a parent, parental separation, negligence of parents leads to indulgence to criminal activities. apart from this, it is observed that if fathers perform illegal activities, they serve as criminal models for their children to follow their footsteps.

b) School : many psychologists observed that criminals are often lowly educated. They conducted studies on prisoners in jail and noticed that a majority had not attended school beyond secondary level. They performed such activities as burglaries, automobile lifting etc.


c) Peers: peers are an important agent of behaviour, particularly criminal behaviour. It is more often observed, that children leave their school mates for criminal fellows. They feel such an association would increase their “prestige” as they become members of gangs.


environmental factors
a) Macro factors

i) Socio-economic status
Often, people belonging to low socioeconomic status indulge in criminal activities. The inability to make both ends meet leads to criminal activities.

ii) Socio-economic stratum: this refers to the social standing, social respect, repute of the family in the neighbourhood and overall in the society.

iii) Upbringing environment: it may be interpreted as the family system but it actually refers to the environment in which one grows up. It may be family or orphanages or adopted parentage system. if a child grows up in a violent environment, he perceives it to be the only way to achieve his goals.


iv) Unemployment: studies conducted in recent times have shown a directly propotional relationship of criminal behaviour with unemployment.

v) Injustice: more criminal activities are observed in a society where timely, impartial and fair justice is absent.

vi) Transitional locality: criminologists observed that people living in localities that are a transition between urban and rural areas show more criminal and violent tendencies.


b) Microfactors

i) Drug and alcohol abuse: it is observed that the use of drugs and alcohol by the individuals often leads to criminal and violent activities such as sexual assault, murders etc

ii) Specific environmental factors: in addition to above mentioned factors other characteristics which are specific for the individual may also lead to illegal activities.

Treatment strategies

a) Medication: there has been much controversy over the use of medication for the treatment of criminals. Studies have not supported any positive impact of medicine on criminal activities. Still, there are psychologists who believe that conduct disorder, antisocial behaviour can be treated using medication. Criminal psychiatrists attempt to make new breakthroughs in this regard.

b) Psychological treatment: perhaps the most important part in the treatment of criminal behaviour is psychological treatment, psychologists hold the view that criminal activities to a large extent are a result of faulty psychological behaviour. Therefore, they attempt to rectify the behaviour through different psychological approaches.

Different paradigms have offered different treatment strategies, conceivably the most important being offered by cognitive and behavioural psychologists. Behaviourists believe that wrong learning leads to criminal behaviour. they stress upon the use of aversive techniques and conditioning to rectify the behaviour.

c) Miscellaneous treatments: in addition to above mentioned strategies, focus has been laid on a number of other techniques as well. In1907, probation was introduced in England. This technique stresses on “advice and befriend “ policy. In this technique the individual who has been placed under the supervision of the therapist is treated in a friendly manner instead of punitive ways. The purpose is to help the individual in amending his ways and contributing to the society in a positive way.

Critical analysis: criminal behaviour or maladaptive behaviour is a result of number of biological factors such as injury, disease, trauma, genetic factors and imabalance of neurotransmitters. Apart from this, sociological factors namely agents of socialization and macro and micro environmental factors also contribute to the maladjustment. Scientific research does not give much regard to the use of medication in this behaviour. Focus is instead laid on psychological treatment and probation.

Q: 6 Many theories have been advanced to explain the causes of Juvenile Delinquency. To your mind how our society may come to deal preventively with this problem?

Juvenile delinquency: criminal behaviour exhibited by individuals below the chronological level of maturity.

Introduction:

Every society sets some standards to differentiate between legality and illegality of acts. Those who violate the standard and move towards the illegal activities are known as criminals and the behaviour exhibited as criminal behaviour or maladjustment. Sometimes, such a behaviour is exhibited by a minor i.e an individual who is not mature by the standards of maturity set by the society. This sort of tendency is known as juvenile delinquency. Many factors and theories have been proposed to explain this negative approach. These include biological, psychological and sociological theories.

Biological theories
Many biological theories have been proposed to explain juvenile delinquency, the most notable being of lambrose . Apart from that chromosomal abnormality theory is also accepted.

a) Lambrose theory: lambrose held the view that individuals showing negative tendency had predisposition to do so. According to him, these individuals had physical factors which created the negative disposition such as protruding foreheads and enlarged ears.

b) Sheldon theory: according to the proposed theory, it is the body shape that determines his tendency to act positively or negatively. Generally, mesomorphs are more likely to show criminal activities than endomorphs.

c) XYY theory: an individual has a pair of chromosomes from parents, in this case, one from each parent. A girl gets an X chromose from both father and mother, whereas a boy inherits an X from mother and Y from his father. Sometimes, chromosomal abnormalities result with an individual getting an extra Y chromosome. It is observed that such individuals show a higher likelihood of showing negative behaviour. But this abnormality is quite rare and so cannot be considered in majority of criminal cases.

Psychological theories

a) Freud’s psychoanalytic theory: a child may exhibit a negative approach. This may be explained by freud’s psychoanalytic theory. according to the theory, Id seeks immediate gratification which causes one to show illegal activities. Another concept proposed is that ego, the moral self and super ego fail to develop properly because of childhood traumatic experiences.. As a result a child indulges in criminal offence.

b) Social learning theory: it is based upon the concept that how individuals conform to the rules, norms and mores of the society. If they find positive role models in their environment, they start imitating them. however, if they have negative role models to idealise, they too resort to violent and immoral activities for the redressal of their grievances.

Sociological theories
Among the sociological theories the most prominent is social strain, labeling and social control theory.

Strain theory: very often an individual has an aim or goal before him and he seeks to achieve the goal. For the purpose he may resort to adopting illegal means. It is based on the following modes

i) Conformity: an individual acknowledges the goals set by the society and the means to achieve them
ii) Innovation: the individual acknowledges the goals but not the means to achieve them.
iii) Retreation : the individual neither acknowledges the goals nor the means to get them.
iv) Ritualism: individual rejects goals but acts upon low standard goals.
v) Rebellion: the individual creates his/ her own world and his/her own goals and means.

Labeling: when a judicial system declares a person to be a criminal. He is labeled as such, not only by the court but also by the society. As a result, he starts acting in the maladjusted manner.

Social control theory: this is based on the concept that individuals may act in a maladjusted manner in order to exercise control over the society. It is a matter of common knowledge that people with such a repute exercise a kind of “control” in the society.

Apart from the aforementioned theories other factors have also contributed to deliquescent behaviour
Factors causing juvenile delinquency

• Neurosis or psychosis
• Parental negligence
• Admiration of negative movie, tv, theatre characters
• Class distinction
• Judicial inequality
• Absence of moral education
• Loss of a parent
• Negative family system

Suggestions to avoid juvenile delinquency
• Equitable distribution of wealth
• Zakat should be regulated
• Media should not glamourise criminal activities
• Youth should be engaged in useful activities
• Parents should act responsibly in upbringing of their children
• Moral education should become compulsory
• Social skills should be taught so individuals refrain from acting in the negative manner
• Media should play its conducive role in highlighting the negative aspect.
• Law enforcement agencies should play their part responsibly.
• Juvenile criminals should be separated from other criminals to prevent them from idolizing them
• Psychologists should try to amend their thinking in a positive direction
• Juvenile criminals should be provided academic education, so that after their release they may contribute positively to the society
• Class discrimination should be avoided or minimized
• Opinion leaders of any area should also try to keep a watch on the activities of young boys and advise them from refraining in any illegal act.


critical analysis: minor individuals may perform illegal acts due to multiple reasons. it has been explained by different psychologists in their theories. general mass, government and media should play a proactive role to deal with such a sensitive issue.

@ sadaf ,Nisma

Do you guys have any idea about which topics to be covered from Sheher Bano's book for paper 2?
I'm specifically asking about Bano's book as I'm already done with Feldman..
Please I need your guidance

__________________
"Bullah Tu Ki Haasil Kita Je Yaar Na Rakhya razi" - Bulleh Shah

sadafnoorelahi

"Psychology as a science of behavior?"

can you explain this? I could not find this in any book