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Naseer Ahmed Chandio Tuesday, December 12, 2006 09:46 AM

Anthropology
 
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Anthropology[/FONT][/B]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman][/FONT][/B]
[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]Anthropology[/B] (from the [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"][COLOR=windowtext]Greek[/COLOR][/URL] word [I]άνθρωπος[/I], "human" or "person") consists of the study of [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanity"][COLOR=windowtext]humanity[/COLOR][/URL] (see genus [I][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_%28genus%29"][COLOR=windowtext]Homo[/COLOR][/URL][/I]). It is [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holism"][COLOR=windowtext]holistic[/COLOR][/URL] in two senses: it is concerned with all humans at all times and with all dimensions of humanity. Anthropology is traditionally distinguished from other disciplines by its emphasis on [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_relativism"][COLOR=windowtext]cultural relativity[/COLOR][/URL], in-depth examination of context, and [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies"][COLOR=windowtext]cross-cultural comparisons[/COLOR][/URL]. Anthropology is methodologically diverse using both [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_methods"][COLOR=windowtext]qualitative methods[/COLOR][/URL] and [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_methods"][COLOR=windowtext]quantitative methods[/COLOR][/URL]. [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_studies"][COLOR=windowtext]Case studies[/COLOR][/URL] have historically played a key role in anthropology, for instance in producing [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnographies"][COLOR=windowtext]ethnographies[/COLOR][/URL] based on [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_research"][COLOR=windowtext]field research[/COLOR][/URL].[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Historical and institutional context[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]The anthropologist [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Wolf"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Eric Wolf[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] once described anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences." Contemporary anthropologists claim a number of earlier thinkers as their forebears, and the discipline has several sources; [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Claude Lévi-Strauss[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], for example, claimed [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montaigne"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Montaigne[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rousseau"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Rousseau[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] as important influences. Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Age of Enlightenment[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], a period when Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior. The traditions of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]jurisprudence[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]history[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]philology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]sociology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] then evolved into something more closely resembling the modern views of these disciplines and informed the development of the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_sciences"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social sciences[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]romantic[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers, such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Johann Gottfried Herder[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and later [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Wilhelm Dilthey[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman], whose work formed the basis for the "culture concept," which is central to the discipline.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Institutionally, anthropology emerged from the development of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]natural history[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] (expounded by authors such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc%2C_Comte_de_Buffon"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Buffon[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]) that occurred during the European colonization of the 17th, 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. Programs of ethnographic study have their origins in this era as the study of the "human primitives" overseen by colonial administrations. There was a tendency in late 18th century Enlightenment thought to understand human society as natural phenomena that behaved in accordance with certain principles and that could be observed empirically.[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology#_note-0#_note-0"][COLOR=windowtext][1][/COLOR][/URL] In some ways, studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was not unlike studying the flora and fauna of those places. Some critics point to the fact that the material culture of "[/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilization"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]civilized[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]" nations such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]China[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] have historically been displayed in fine-art museums alongside European art, while artifacts from African and Native North American cultures were displayed in Natural History Museums, alongside dinosaur bones and nature dioramas. The [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]British Museum[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] or the Parisian [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_l%27Homme"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Musée de l'Homme[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] are examples of such museums—the Musée de l'Homme held the "[/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hottentot_Venus"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Hottentot Venus[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]" remains until the 1970s. Saartje Baartman, a [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namaqua"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Namaqua[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] woman, was examined by anatomist [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Georges Cuvier[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. This being said, curatorial practice has changed dramatically in recent years, and it would be inaccurate to see anthropology as merely an extension of colonial rule and European [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauvinism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]chauvinism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], since its relationship to [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]imperialism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] was and is complex. [/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history, and by the end of the nineteenth century, it had begun to crystallize into its modern form; by 1935, for example, it was possible for T. K. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled "A Hundred Years of Anthropology." Early anthropology was dominated by proponents of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unilineal_evolution"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]unilinealism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], who argued that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process, from the most primitive to the most advanced. Non-European societies were thus seen as evolutionary "living fossils," which could be studied in order to understand the European past. Scholars wrote histories of prehistoric migrations that were sometimes valuable but often also fanciful. It was during this time that Europeans, such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Rivet"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Paul Rivet[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], first accurately traced [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesia"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Polynesian[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] migrations across the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Pacific Ocean[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]—though some of them believed those emigrations had originated in [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Egypt[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. Finally, concepts of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]race[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] were developed with a view to better understanding the nature of the biological variation within the Human species, and tools such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropometry"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Anthropometry[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] were devised as a means of measuring and categorizing this variation, not just within the genus Homo, but in fossil [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hominids"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Hominids[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and primates as well. Unfortunately racialistic concepts were abused by a few and gave rise to theories of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_racism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Scientific racism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman].[/FONT][/SIZE]
[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]Anténor Firmin wrote De l'égalité des races humaines (1885) as a direct rebuttal to Count Arthur de Gobineau’s polemical four-volume work [I]Essai sur l'inegalite des Races Humaines[/I] (1853–1855), which asserted the superiority of the Aryan race and the inferiority of blacks and other people of color. Firmin’s work argued the opposite, that "all men are endowed with the same qualities and the same faults, without distinction of color or anatomical form. The races are equal" (pp. 450). Firmin grew up in Haiti, and was admitted to the Societé d’ Anthropologie de Paris in 1884 while serving as a diplomat. His persuasive critique and rigorous analysis of many of that society’s leading scholars made him an early pioneer in the so-called vindicationist struggle in anthropology. Many scholars also associate his work with the very first ideas of Pan-Africanism.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]In the twentieth century, academic disciplines began to organize around three main domains. The domain of the [I][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciences"][COLOR=windowtext]sciences[/COLOR][/URL][/I] seeks to derive natural laws through reproducible and falsifiable experiments; that of the [I][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanities"][COLOR=windowtext]humanities[/COLOR][/URL][/I] reflects an attempt to study different national traditions, in the form of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]history[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]arts[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman], as an attempt to provide people in emerging nation-states with a sense of coherence; the [I][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_sciences"][COLOR=windowtext]social sciences[/COLOR][/URL][/I] emerged at this time as an attempt to develop scientific methods to address social phenomena and provide a universal basis for social knowledge. Anthropology does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Drawing on the methods of the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]natural sciences[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and developing new techniques involving not only structured interviews, but unstructured [I]participant observation,[/I] and drawing on the new [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_evolution"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]theory of evolution[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] through [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]natural selection[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman], the branches of anthropology proposed the scientific study of a new object: humankind, conceived of as a whole. Crucial to this study is the concept of [I]culture,[/I] which anthropologists defined both as a universal capacity and a propensity for social learning, thinking, and acting (which they saw as a product of human evolution and something that distinguishes [I][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_sapiens"][COLOR=windowtext]Homo sapiens[/COLOR][/URL][/I]—and perhaps all species of genus [I][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hominoid"][COLOR=windowtext]Homo[/COLOR][/URL][/I]—from other species), and as a particular adaptation to local conditions, which takes the form of highly variable beliefs and practices. Thus, culture not only transcends the opposition between nature and nurture, but absorbs the peculiarly European distinction among politics, religion, kinship, and the economy as autonomous domains. Anthropology thus transcends the divisions between the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities to explore the biological, linguistic, material, and symbolic dimensions of humankind in all forms.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Anthropology in the United States[/FONT][/B]

[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Jacksonian America and polygenism[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Late eighteenth century ethnology established the scientific foundation for the field, which began to mature when [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Jackson"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Andrew Jackson[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] was President of the United States (1829-1837). Jackson was responsible for implementing the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Indian Removal Act[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], the coerced and forced removal of an estimated 100,000 American Indians during the 1830s to Indian Territory in present-day [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Oklahoma[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]; for insuring that the franchise was extended to all white men, irrespective of financial means while denying virtually all black men the right to vote; and, for suppressing abolitionists’ efforts to end slavery while vigorously defending that institution. Finally, he was responsible for appointing Chief Justice Roger B. Taney who would decide, in Scott v. Sandford (1857), that Negroes were “beings of an inferior order, and altogether unfit to associate with the white race. . . and so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect.” As a result of this decision, black people, whether free or enslaved, could never become citizens of the United States.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]It was in this context that the so-called American School of Anthropology thrived as the champion of polygenism or the doctrine of multiple origins—sparking a debate between those influenced by the Bible who believed in the unity of humanity and those who argued from a scientific standpoint for the plurality of origins and the antiquity of distinct types. Like the monogenists, these theories were not monolithic and often used words like races, species, hybrid, and mongrel interchangeably. A scientific consensus began to emerge during this period “that there exists a Genus Homo, embracing many primordial types of ‘species.’” Charles Caldwell, [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_George_Morton"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Samuel George Morton[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], Samuel A. Cartwright, George Gliddon, Josiah C. Nott, and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Agassiz"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Louis Agassiz[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and even [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Carolina"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]South Carolina[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] Governor James Henry Hammond were all influential proponents of this school. While some were disinterested scientists, others were passionate advocates who used science to promote slavery in a period of increasing sectional strife. All were complicit in establishing the putative science that justified slavery, informed the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dred_Scott"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Dred Scott[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] decision, underpinned miscegenation laws, and eventually fueled [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Jim Crow[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. Samuel G. Morton, for example, claimed to be just a scientist but he did not hesitate to provide evidence of Negro inferiority to [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_C._Calhoun"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]John C. Calhoun[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], the prominent pro-slavery Secretary of State to help him negotiate the annexation of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Texas[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] as a slave state.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman] [/FONT][/B]

[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Types of Mankind, 1854[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]The high-water mark of polygenitic theories was Josiah Nott and Gliddon’s voluminous eight-hundred page tome entitled [I]Types of Mankind[/I], published in 1854. Reproducing the work of Louis Agassiz and Samuel Morton, the authors spread the virulent and explicitly racist views to a wider, more popular audience. The first printing sold out quickly and by the end of the century it had undergone nine editions. Although many Southerners felt that all the justification for slavery they needed was found in the Bible, others used the new science to defend slavery and the repression of American Indians. Abolitionists, however, felt as though they had to take on this science on its own terms. And for the first time, African American intellectuals waded into the contentious debate. In the immediate wake of [I]Types of Mankind[/I] and during the pitched political battles that led to Civil War, [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Douglass"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Frederick Douglass[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] (1818-1895), the statesman and persuasive abolitionist, directly attacked the leading theorists of the American School of Anthropology. In an 1854 address, entitled “The Claims of the Negro Ethnologically Considered,” Douglass argued that "by making the enslaved a character fit only for slavery, [slaveowners] excuse themselves for refusing to make the slave a freeman.... For let it be once granted that the human race are of multitudinous origin, naturally different in their moral, physical, and intellectual capacities... a chance is left for slavery, as a necessary institution.... There is no doubt that Messrs. Nott, Glidden, Morton, Smith and Agassiz were duly consulted by our slavery propagating statesmen" (p. 287).[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Boasian anthropology[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Boas"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Franz Boas[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman], one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the "Father of American Anthropology"[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Cultural anthropology in the United States was influenced greatly by the ready availability of Native American societies as ethnographic subjects. The field was pioneered by staff of the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Bureau of Indian Affairs[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and the Smithsonian Institution's [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_American_Ethnology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Bureau of American Ethnology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], men such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wesley_Powell"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]John Wesley Powell[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Hamilton_Cushing"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Frank Hamilton Cushing[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Henry_Morgan"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Lewis Henry Morgan[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] (1818-1881), a lawyer from [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Rochester, New York[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], became an advocate for and ethnological scholar of the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iroquois"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Iroquois[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. His comparative analyses of religion, government, material culture, and especially kinship patterns proved to be influential contributions to the field of anthropology. Like other scholars of his day (such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Tylor"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Edward Tylor[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]), Morgan argued that human societies could be classified into categories of cultural evolution on a scale of progression that ranged from [I]savagery[/I], to [I]barbarism[/I], to [I]civilization[/I]. Generally, Morgan used technology (such as bowmaking or pottery) as an indicator of position on this scale. [/FONT][/SIZE]
[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Boas"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Franz Boas[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] established academic anthropology in the United States in opposition to this sort of evolutionary perspective. Boasian anthropology was politically active and suspicious of research dictated by the U.S. government and wealthy patrons. It was rigorously empirical and skeptical of overgeneralizations and attempts to establish universal laws. Boas studied immigrant children to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable, and that human conduct and behavior resulted from nurture, rather than nature.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Influenced by the German tradition, Boas argued that the world was full of distinct [I]cultures,[/I] rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little "civilization" they had. He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]natural sciences[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman], were not possible. In doing so, he fought discrimination against immigrants, African Americans, and Native North Americans. Many American anthropologists adopted his agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular targets for anthropologists today.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Boas used his positions at [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Columbia University[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]American Museum of Natural History[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] to train and develop multiple generations of students. His first generation of students included [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Kroeber"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Alfred Kroeber[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lowie"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Robert Lowie[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Edward Sapir[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Benedict"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Ruth Benedict[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], all of whom produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures. They provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages helped establish [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]linguistics[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Indo-European languages[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman].[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]The publication of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Kroeber"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Alfred Kroeber[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]'s textbook, [I]Anthropology,[/I] marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material, Boasians felt a growing urge to generalize. This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Mead"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Margaret Mead[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Benedict"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Ruth Benedict[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Sigmund Freud[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Carl Jung[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up. Though such works as [I]Coming of Age in Samoa[/I] and [I]The Chrysanthemum and the Sword[/I] remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined by [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Linton"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Ralph Linton[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and Mead was limited to her offices at the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]AMNH[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman].[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Anthropology in Britain[/FONT][/B]

[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]Whereas Boas picked his opponents to pieces through attention to detail, modern anthropology in Britain was formed by rejecting historical reconstruction in the name of a science of society that focused on analyzing how societies held together in the present.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]The two most important scholars in this tradition were [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Reginald_Radcliffe-Brown"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronislaw_Malinowski"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Bronislaw Malinowski[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], both of whom released seminal works in 1922. Radcliffe-Brown's initial fieldwork, in the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andaman_Islands"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Andaman Islands[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], was carried out in the old style of historical reconstruction. After reading the work of French sociologists [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Émile Durkheim[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Mauss"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Marcel Mauss[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], Radcliffe-Brown published an account of his research (entitled simply [I]The Andaman Islanders[/I]) that paid close attention to the meaning and purpose of rituals and myths. Over time, he developed an approach known as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_functionalism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]structural-functionalism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibrium in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously. [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronislaw_Malinowski"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Malinowski[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], in contrast, advocated an unhyphenated [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_%28sociology%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]functionalism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], which examined how society functioned to meet individual needs. He is better known, however, for his detailed [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnography"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]ethnography[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] and advances in methodology. His classic ethnography, [I]Argonauts of the Western Pacific,[/I] advocated getting "the native's point of view" and an approach to fieldwork that became standard in the field.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown's influence stemmed from the fact that they, like Boas, actively trained students and aggressively built up institutions that furthered their programmatic ambitions. This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for "Social Anthropology" by teaching at universities across the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Commonwealth[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. From the late 1930s until the postwar period appeared a string of monographs and edited volumes that cemented the paradigm of British Social Anthropology. Famous ethnographies include [I]The Nuer,[/I] by [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Evan_Evans-Pritchard"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [I]The Dynamics of Clanship Among the Tallensi,[/I] by [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meyer_Fortes"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Meyer Fortes[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]; well-known edited volumes include [I]African Systems of Kinship and Marriage[/I] and [I]African Political Systems.[/I][/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Anthropology in France[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Claude Lévi-Strauss[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions. Most commentators consider [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Mauss"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Marcel Mauss[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss was a member of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Durkheim's[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann%C3%A9e_Sociologique"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Année Sociologique[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] group, and while Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Hubert"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Henri Hubert[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hertz"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Robert Hertz[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies which were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states. In particular, Mauss's [I][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gift_%28book%29"][COLOR=windowtext]Essay on the Gift[/COLOR][/URL][/I] was to prove of enduring relevance in anthropological studies of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]exchange[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocity_%28cultural_anthropology%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]reciprocity[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman].[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Throughout the interwar years, French interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrealism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]surrealism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitivism_%28art_movement%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]primitivism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] which drew on ethnography for inspiration. [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Griaule"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Marcel Griaule[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Leiris"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Michel Leiris[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] are examples of people who combined anthropology with the French avant-garde. During this time most of what is known as [I]ethnologie[/I] was restricted to museums, such as the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_l%27Homme"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Musée de l'Homme[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] founded by [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Rivet"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Paul Rivet[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and anthropology had a close relationship with studies of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]folklore[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman].[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Above all, however, it was [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Claude Lévi-Strauss[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] who helped institutionalize anthropology in France. In addition to the enormous influence his [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]structuralism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] exerted across multiple disciplines, Lévi-Strauss established ties with American and British anthropologists. At the same time he established centers and laboratories within France to provide an institutional context within anthropology while training influential students such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Godelier"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Maurice Godelier[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_H%C3%A9ritier"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Françoise Héritier[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] who would prove influential in the world of French anthropology. Much of the distinct character of France's anthropology today is a result of the fact that most anthropology is carried out in nationally funded research laboratories ([/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNRS"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]CNRS[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]) rather than academic departments in universities.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Other influential writers in the 1970s include [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Clastres"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Pierre Clastres[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], who explains in his books on the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guayaki"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Guayaki[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] tribe in [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraguay"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Paraguay[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] that "primitive societies" actively oppose the institution of the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]state[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. Therefore, these stateless societies are not less evolved than societies with states, but took the active choice of conjuring the institution of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]authority[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] as a separate function from society. The [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]leader[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] is only a spokeperson for the group when it has to deal with other groups ("international relations") but has no inside authority, and may be violently removed if he attempts to abuse this position.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Anthropology after World War II[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Before [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]WWII[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. It was after the war that the two would blend to create a 'sociocultural' anthropology.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]In the 1950s and mid-1960s anthropology tended increasingly to model itself after the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]natural sciences[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. Some anthropologists, such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lloyd_Fallers&action=edit"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Lloyd Fallers[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Geertz"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Clifford Geertz[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], focused on processes of modernization by which newly independent states could develop. Others, such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Steward"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Julian Steward[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_White"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Leslie White[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche-an approach popularized by [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvin_Harris"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Marvin Harris[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_anthropology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Economic anthropology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] as influenced by [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Polanyi"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Karl Polanyi[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and practiced by [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Marshall Sahlins[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Dalton"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]George Dalton[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] focused on how traditional [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]economics[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] ignored cultural and social factors. In England, British Social Anthropology's paradigm began to fragment as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Gluckman"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Max Gluckman[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter_Worsley&action=edit"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Peter Worsley[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] experimented with Marxism and authors such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rodney_Needham&action=edit"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Rodney Needham[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Leach"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Edmund Leach[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] incorporated Lévi-Strauss's structuralism into their work.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Structuralism also influenced a number of developments in 1960s and 1970s, including [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive_anthropology&action=edit"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]cognitive anthropology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and componential analysis. Authors such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Schneider_%28anthropologist%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]David Schneider[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Geertz"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Clifford Geertz[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Marshall Sahlins[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] developed a more fleshed-out concept of culture as a web of meaning or signification, which proved very popular within and beyond the discipline. In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_War_of_Independence"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Algerian War of Independence[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and opposition to the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Vietnam War[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]; [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Marxism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] became a more and more popular theoretical approach in the discipline. By the 1970s the authors of volumes such as [I]Reinventing Anthropology[/I] worried about anthropology's relevance.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucault"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Michel Foucault[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]In the 1980s issues of power, such as those examined in [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Wolf"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Eric Wolf[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]'s [I]Europe and the People Without History[/I], were central to the discipline. Books like [I]Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter[/I] pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Antonio Gramsci[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucault"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Michel Foucault[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight. Gender and sexuality became a popular topic, as did the relationship between history and anthropology, influenced by [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Marshall Sahlins[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] (again), who drew on [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Lévi-Strauss[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernand_Braudel"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Fernand Braudel[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] to examine the relationship between social structure and individual agency.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]In the late 1980s and 1990s authors such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Marcus&action=edit"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]George Marcus[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Clifford&action=edit"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]James Clifford[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] pondered ethnographic authority, particularly how and why anthropological knowledge was possible and authoritative. Ethnographies became more reflexive, explicitly addressing the author's methodology and cultural positioning, and their influence on his or her ethnographic analysis. This was part of a more general trend of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]postmodernism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] that was popular contemporaneously. Currently anthropologists have begun to pay attention to [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]globalization[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]medicine[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]biotechnology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_rights&action=edit"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]indigenous rights[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman], and the anthropology of industrialized societies.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Politics of anthropology[/FONT][/B]

[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]American cultural anthropology developed during the first four decades of the 20th century under the powerful influence of Franz Boas and his students and their struggle against racial determinism and the ethnocentrism of 19th century cultural evolutionism. With the additional impact of the Great Depression and World War II, American anthropology developed a pronounced liberal-left tone by the 1950s. However, the discipline's deep involvement with nonwestern cultures put it in a vulnerable position during the campus upheavals of the late 1960s and in the subsequent "culture wars." The "politics of anthropology" has become a pervasive concern since then. Whatever the realities, the notion of anthropology as somehow complicit in morally unacceptable projects has become a significant topic both within the discipline and in "cultural studies" and "post-colonialism," etc. A few of the central elements in this discourse are the following:[/FONT][/SIZE][LIST][*][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]The claim that the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derived some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. (See, e.g., Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004). It is often assumed that an example of this exploitative relationship can be seen in the relationship between of British anthropologists and colonial forces in Africa, yet this assumption has not been supported by much evidence. (See Asad et al; cf. Desai.) [/FONT][/SIZE][/LIST][LIST][*][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]The idea that social and political problems must arise because anthropologists usually have more power than the people they study; it is a form of colonialist theft in which the anthropologist gains power at the expense of subjects (Rabinow, Dwyer, McGrane). Anthropologists, they argue, can gain yet more power by exploiting knowledge and artifacts of the people they study while the people they study gain nothing, or even lose, in the exchange (e.g. Deloria). Little critical writing has been published in response to these wide-ranging claims, themselves the product of the political concerns and atmosphere of their own times. (See Trencher for a critique.) [/FONT][/SIZE][/LIST][LIST][*][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]It is claimed the discipline was ahistorical, and dealt with its "objects" (sic) "out of time," to their detriment (Fabian). It is often claimed that anthropologists regularly "exoticized 'the Other,'" or, with equal assurance, that they inappropriately universalized "Others" and "human nature." (For references and a response see Lewis 1998.) [/FONT][/SIZE][/LIST][LIST][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Other more explicitly political concerns have to do with anthropologists’ entanglements with government intelligence agencies, on the one hand, and anti-war politics on the other. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]World War I[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists. But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the "Axis" (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan). Many served in the armed forces but others worked in intelligence (e.g. Office of Strategic Services [OSS} and the Office of War Information). David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists for their vocal left-wing sympathies. On the other hand, attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little. (Anthropologists did not participate in the stillborn Project Camelot, for example. See Lewis 2005) On the contrary, many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement and a great many resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Anthropological_Association"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]American Anthropological Association[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] (AAA). In the decades since the Vietnam war the tone of cultural and social anthropology, at least, has been increasingly politicized, with the dominant liberal tone of earlier generations replaced with one more radical, a mix of, and varying degrees of, Marxist, feminist, post-colonial, post-modern, Saidian, Foucaultian, identity-based, and more. [/FONT][/SIZE][/LIST][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]state[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The British Association for Social Anthropology has called certain scholarships ethically dangerous. The AAA's current 'Statement of Professional Responsibility' clearly states that "in relation with their own government and with host governments... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given."[/FONT][/SIZE]
[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]More recently, there have been concerns expressed about bioprospecting, along with struggles for self-representation for native peoples and the repatriation of indigenous remains and material culture, with anthropologists often in the lead on these issues.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Other political controversies come from the emphasis in American anthropology on cultural relativism and its long-standing antipathy to the concept of race. The development of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]sociobiology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] in the late 1960s was opposed by cultural anthropologists such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Marshall Sahlins[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], who argued that these positions were reductive. While authors such John Randal Baker continued to develop the biological concept of race into the 1970s, the rise of genetics has proven to be central to developments on this front. As genetics continues to advance as a science some anthropologists such as Luca [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalli-Sforza"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Cavalli-Sforza[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] have continued to transform and advance notions of race through the use of recent developments in [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]genetics[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], such as tracing past migrations of peoples through their [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]mitochondrial[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and Y-chromosomal [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]DNA[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancestry-informative_marker"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]ancestry-informative markers[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman].[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Branches of anthropology[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]In [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]North America[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman], "anthropology" is traditionally divided into four sub-disciplines:[/FONT][/SIZE][LIST][*][B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_anthropology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Physical anthropology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][/B][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], or [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_anthropology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]biological anthropology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], which studies [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primatology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]primate behavior[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_evolution"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]human evolution[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]osteology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]forensics[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_genetics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]population genetics[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]; [/FONT][/SIZE][*][B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_anthropology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Cultural anthropology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][/B][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] (called [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_anthropology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social anthropology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] in the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]United Kingdom[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and now often known as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socio-cultural_anthropology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]socio-cultural anthropology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]), which studies social networks, [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_%28anthropology%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]diffusion[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], social behavior, [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinship"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]kinship[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] patterns, law, politics, [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]ideology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], religion, beliefs, patterns in production and consumption, exchange, socialization, gender, and other expressions of culture, with strong emphasis on the importance of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fieldwork"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]fieldwork[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] or participant observation (i.e., living among the social group being studied for an extended period of time); [/FONT][/SIZE][*][B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Linguistic anthropology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][/B][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], which studies variation in [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]language[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture, and [/FONT][/SIZE][*][B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Archaeology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][/B][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], which studies the material remains of human [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]societies[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. Archaeology itself is normally treated as a separate (but related) field in the rest of the world, although closely related to the anthropological field of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_culture"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]material culture[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman], which deals with physical objects created or used within a living or past group as a means of understanding its cultural values. [/FONT][/SIZE][/LIST][FONT='Times New Roman']More recently, some anthropology programs began dividing the field into two, one emphasizing the [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanities"][COLOR=windowtext]humanities[/COLOR][/URL] and [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_theory"][COLOR=windowtext]critical theory[/COLOR][/URL], the other emphasizing the [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science"][COLOR=windowtext]natural sciences[/COLOR][/URL] and [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism"][COLOR=windowtext]empirical observation[/COLOR][/URL][/FONT]
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[FONT='Times New Roman']Ref: [URL="http://www.wikipedia.com"]www.wikipedia.com[/URL][/FONT]
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zakai Monday, June 20, 2016 03:03 PM

thanks for this useful inforation

zakai Monday, June 20, 2016 03:03 PM

thanks for this valuable information


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