CSS Forums - Social Studies an overview

[B][FONT='Times New Roman']Social policy:[/FONT][/B]

[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]Social policy[/B] relates to guidelines for the changing, maintenance or creation of living conditions that are conducive to [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life"][COLOR=windowtext]human welfare[/COLOR][/URL]. Thus social policy is that part of [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_policy"][COLOR=windowtext]public policy[/COLOR][/URL] that has to do with social issues such as public access to social programs. Social policy aims to improve human welfare and to meet human needs for education, health, housing and social security. In an academic environment, social policy refers to the study of the [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welfare_state"][COLOR=windowtext]welfare state[/COLOR][/URL] and the range of responses to social need.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]In [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]United States[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]politics[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], social policies are those which regulate and govern human behavior in areas such as sexuality and general [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morality"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]morality[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. Social policies are in contrast to other, more traditional forms of political policy, such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_policy"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]foreign policy[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]economic policy[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]. Modern-day social policies may deal with the following issues:[/FONT][/SIZE][LIST][*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]abortion[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman], and the regulation of its practice [/FONT][/SIZE][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]the legal status of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthanasia"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]euthanasia[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] [/FONT][/SIZE][*][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]the rules surrounding issues of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]marriage[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divorce"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]divorce[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoption"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]adoption[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] [/FONT][/SIZE][*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]poverty[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welfare"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]welfare[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homelessness"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]homelessness[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] and how it is to deal with these issues [/FONT][/SIZE][/LIST][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Social policy may be influenced by [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]religion[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and the religious beliefs of politicians. [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Political conservatives[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] as a whole generally favor a more traditionalist approach that favors individual initiative and private enterprise in social policy. [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Political liberals[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], on the other hand favor the guarantee of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal_rights"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]equal rights[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] and entitlements to all people and tend to favor state regulation or insurance to support this.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]In [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Europe[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Canada[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman], social policy usually refers to policies affecting the social conditions under which people live. Important areas of social policy in these countries are:[/FONT][/SIZE][LIST][*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_insurance"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Health insurance[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] [/FONT][/SIZE][*][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]Accident insurance [/FONT][/SIZE][*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unemployment_insurance"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Unemployment insurance[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] [/FONT][/SIZE][*][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]Retirement insurance [/FONT][/SIZE][*][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]Labor regulation [/FONT][/SIZE][*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Education[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] [/FONT][/SIZE][/LIST][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]In most European countries, those types of insurance are made mandatory by [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]law[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]. As a result, for example, the number of people without health insurance is very small, other than in the US. However, those policies are facing additional challenges in recent years, as the population is aging and the number of contributors dwindling, while there are more and more beneficiaries. Social policy is thus becoming an important challenge for politicians and policymakers.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]Social policy[/B] often deals with issues which Rittle & Webber (1973) called [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wicked_problems"][COLOR=windowtext]wicked problems[/COLOR][/URL][/FONT][/SIZE]
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[B][FONT='Times New Roman']13. Sociology:[/FONT][FONT='Times New Roman'][/FONT][/B]

[SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman][B]Sociology[/B] is the study of society and human social action. It generally concerns itself with the [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_rule"][COLOR=windowtext]social rules[/COLOR][/URL] and [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_%28general%29"][COLOR=windowtext]processes[/COLOR][/URL] that bind and separate people not only as [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individual"][COLOR=windowtext]individuals[/COLOR][/URL], but as members of [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluntary_association"][COLOR=windowtext]associations[/COLOR][/URL], [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_%28sociology%29"][COLOR=windowtext]groups[/COLOR][/URL], and [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_institution"][COLOR=windowtext]institutions[/COLOR][/URL], and includes the examination of the organization and development of human social life. The sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contact"][COLOR=windowtext]contacts[/COLOR][/URL] between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization"][COLOR=windowtext]global social processes[/COLOR][/URL]. Most sociologists work in one or more specialties or subfields ([URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology#Subfields_of_sociology#Subfields_of_sociology"][COLOR=windowtext]listed below[/COLOR][/URL]).[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]The meaning of the word comes from the suffix "-ology" which means "study of," derived from Greek, and the stem "soci-" which is from the Latin word socius, meaning member, friend, or ally, thus referring to people in general. It is a [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_sciences"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social science[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] involving the study of the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]lives[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]people[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_%28sociology%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]groups[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]societies[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], sometimes defined as the study of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_interactions"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social interactions[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. It is a relatively new [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discipline"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]academic discipline[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] which evolved in the early 19th century.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Because sociology is such a broad discipline, it can be difficult to define, even for professional sociologists. One useful way to describe the discipline is as a cluster of sub-fields that examine different dimensions of society. For example, [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratification"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social stratification[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] studies inequality and class structure; [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demography"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]demography[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] studies changes in a population size or type; [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]criminology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] examines criminal behavior and deviance; [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_sociology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]political sociology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] studies government and laws; and the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sociology_of_race&action=edit"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]sociology of race[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_gender"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]sociology of gender[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] examine society's racial and gender cleavages.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]New sociological sub-fields continue to appear - such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_sociology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]economic sociology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_analysis"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]network analysis[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] - many of which are cross-disciplanary in nature.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Since the late 1970s, many sociologists have tried to make the discipline useful for non-academic purposes. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_policy"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]public policy[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], through subdisciplinary areas such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survey_research"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]survey research[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_research"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]evaluation research[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], methodological [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assessment"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]assessment[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sociology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]public sociology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman].[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Sociological methods, theories, and concepts compel the sociologist to explore the origins of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_sense"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]commonly accepted[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] rules governing human behavior. This specific approach to reality is known as the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_perspective"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]sociological perspective[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. Sociology is methodologically diverse using both qualitative and quantitative methods, including [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_studies"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]case studies[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survey_research"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]survey research[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_analysis"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]statistical analysis[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman], and model building among others.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]History of sociology[/FONT][/B]

[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Comte"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Auguste Comte[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Sociology is a relatively new academic discipline among other [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_sciences"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social sciences[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] including [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]economics[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_science"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]political science[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]anthropology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]history[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]psychology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. The ideas behind it, however, have a long history and can trace their origins to a mixture of common human [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]knowledge[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]philosophy[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman].[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Sociology as a scientific discipline emerged in the early 19th century as an academic response to the challenge of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernity"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]modernity[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]: as the world was becoming smaller and more integrated, people's experience of the world was increasingly atomized and dispersed. Sociologists hoped not only to understand what held social groups together, but also to develop an antidote to [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_disintegration"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social disintegration[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman].[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]The term was coined by [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Comte"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Auguste Comte[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] in 1838 from [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Latin[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] [I]Socius[/I] (companion, associate) and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Greek[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] [I]lógos[/I] (speech). Comte hoped to unify all studies of humankind--including history, psychology and economics. His own sociological scheme was typical of the 19th century; he believed all human life had passed through the same distinct historical stages (theology, metaphysics, positive science) and that, if one could grasp this progress, one could prescribe the remedies for social ills. Sociology was to be the 'queen of sciences'.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Spencer"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Herbert Spencer[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][/B]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]The first book with the term 'sociology' in its title was [B]The Study of Sociology[/B] (1874) by the English philosopher [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Spencer"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Herbert Spencer[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. In the United States, [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Lester Frank Ward[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], described by some as the father of American sociology, published [B]Dynamic Sociology[/B] in 1883 and the discipline was taught by its own name for the first time at the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Kansas"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]University of Kansas[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Lawrence[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] in 1890 under the course title [I]Elements of Sociology[/I] (the oldest continuing sociology course in America). The [I]Department of History and Sociology[/I] at the University of Kansas was established in 1891 [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://www.ku.edu/%7Esocdept/about/"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][1][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3],[/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://www.news.ku.edu/2005/June/June15/sociology.shtml"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][2][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and the first full fledged independent university department of sociology was established in 1892 at the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]University of Chicago[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] by [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albion_W._Small"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Albion W. Small[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], who in 1895 founded the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Sociology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]American Journal of Sociology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJS/home.html"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][3][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. The first European department of sociology was founded in 1895 at the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Bordeaux"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]University of Bordeaux[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] by [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Émile Durkheim[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], founder of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann%C3%A9e_Sociologique"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]L'Année Sociologique[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] (1896). The first sociology department to be established in the United Kingdom was at the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_School_of_Economics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]London School of Economics and Political Science[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] (home of the British Journal of Sociology) [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://www.lse.ac.uk/serials/Bjs/"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][4][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] in 1904. In 1919 a sociology department was established in Germany at the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilians_University_of_Munich"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] by [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Max Weber[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and in 1920 in [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Poland[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] by [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florian_Znaniecki"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Florian Znaniecki[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman].[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Karl Marx[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][/B]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]International cooperation in sociology began in 1893 when [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Worms"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]René Worms[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] founded the small [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Institut_International_de_Sociologie&action=edit"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Institut International de Sociologie[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] that was eclipsed by the much larger [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Sociological_Association"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]International Sociological Association[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://www.ucm.es/info/isa/"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3][5][/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] starting in 1949 (ISA). In 1905 the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sociological_Association"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]American Sociological Association[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], the world's largest [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluntary_association"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]association[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] of professional sociologists, was founded.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Other "classical" theorists of sociology from the late 19th and early 20th centuries include [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Karl Marx[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Ferdinand Tönnies[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Émile Durkheim[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Vilfredo Pareto[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Max Weber[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. Like Comte, these figures did not consider themselves only "sociologists". Their works addressed [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]religion[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]education[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]economics[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]law[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]psychology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]ethics[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]philosophy[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]theology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman], and their theories have been applied in a variety of academic diciplines. Their most enduring influence, however, has been on sociology, (with the exception of Marx, who is a central figure in the field of economics as well) and it is in this field that their theories are still considered most applicable.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lester_Ward"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Lester Ward[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][/B]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]One shift in the discipline away from scientific explanation had philosophical roots. Early theorists' approach to sociology, led by Comte, was to treat it in the same manner as natural science, applying the same methods and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]methodology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] used in the natural sciences to study social phenomena. The emphasis on [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]empiricism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]scientific method[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] sought to provide an incontestable foundation for any sociological claims or findings, and to distinguish sociology from less empirical fields like [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]philosophy[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. This methodological approach, called [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_positivism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]positivism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], became a source of contention between sociologists and other scientists, and eventually a point of divergence within the field itself. Thus, while most sciences evolved from [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]deterministic[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtonian"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Newtonian[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] models to [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]probabilistic[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] models which accept and even incorporate [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_principle"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]uncertainty[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], sociology began to cleave into those who believed in a deterministic approach (attributing variation to [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_structure"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]structure[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman], interactions, or other forces) and those who rejected the very possibility of explanation and prediction.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Max Weber[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][/B]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]A second push away from scientific explanation was cultural, even sociological, itself. As early as the 19th century, positivist and naturalist approaches to studying social life were questioned by scientists like [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Wilhelm Dilthey[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Rickert"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Heinrich Rickert[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], who argued that the natural world differs from the social world due to unique aspects of human society such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]meanings[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbol"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]symbols[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_%28sociology%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]rules[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]norms[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_%28personal_and_cultural%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]values[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. These elements of society both result in and generate human [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]cultures[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. This view was further developed by Max Weber, who introduced [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipositivism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]antipositivism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] ([/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_sociology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]humanistic sociology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]). According to this view, which is closely related to [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antinaturalism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]antinaturalism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], sociological research must concentrate on humans' cultural values. This has led to some controversy on how one can draw the line between [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]subjective[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]objective[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] research and has also influenced [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneutical"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]hermeneutical[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] studies. Similar disputes, especially in the era of the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Internet[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], have led to variations in sociology such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sociology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]public sociology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman], which emphasizes the usefulness of sociological expertise to abstracted audiences.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Social theory[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Social theory refers to the use of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction_%28sociology%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]abstract[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and often complex [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]theoretical[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] frameworks to explain and analyze [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_pattern&action=edit"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social patterns[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]macro[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_structure"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social structures[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] in [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_life"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social life[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], rather than explaining patterns of social life. Social theory always had an uneasy relationship to the more classic [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_disciplines"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]academic disciplines[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]; many of its key thinkers never held a university position. While social theory is sometimes considered a branch of sociology, it is inherently [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinary"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]interdisciplinary[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], as it deals with multiple fields including [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]anthropology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]economics[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]theology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]history[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]philosophy[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and many others. First social theories developed almost simultaneously with the birth of the sociology science itself. [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Comte"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Auguste Comte[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], known as 'father of sociology', also laid the groundwork for one of the first social theories - [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_evolutionism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social evolutionism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. In the 19th century three great, classical theories of social and historical change were created: the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_evolutionism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social evolutionism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] theory (of which [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_darwinism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social darwinism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] is a part of), the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_cycle_theory"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social cycle theory[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Marxist[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_materialism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]historical materialism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] theory. Although the majority of 19th century social theories are now considered obsolete they have spawned new, modern social theories. Modern social theories represent some advanced version of the classical theories, like [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilineal_evolution"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Multilineal theories of evolution[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] ([/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoevolutionism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]neoevolutionism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]sociobiology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_modernisation"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]theory of modernisation[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_post-industrial_society"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]theory of post-industrial society[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]) or the general [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Historical_sociology&action=edit"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]historical sociology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_subjectivity"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]theory of subjectivity[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] and creation of the society.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Unlike disciplines within the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_sciences"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]natural sciences[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] -- such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]physics[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] or [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]chemistry[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] -- social theorists may be less committed to use the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]scientific method[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] to vindicate their theories. Instead, they tackle very large-scale social trends and structures using [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypotheses"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]hypotheses[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] that cannot be easily proved, except by historical and psychological interpretation, which is often the basis of criticism from opponents of social theories. Extremely critical theorists, such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconstruction"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]deconstructionists[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] or [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernists"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]postmodernists[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], may argue that any systematic type of research or method is inherently flawed. Many times, however, "social theory" is defined without reference to science because the social reality it describes is so overarching as to be unprovable. The social theories of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernity"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]modernity[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] or [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchy_%28word%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]anarchy[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] might be two examples of this.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]However, social theories are a major part of the science of sociology. Objective science-based research can often provide support for explanations given by social theorists. Statistical research grounded in the scientific method, for instance, that finds a severe [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Income_disparity"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]income disparity[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] between women and men performing the same occupation can complement the underlying premise of the complex social theories of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]feminism[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] or [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchy"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]patriarchy[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. In general, and particularly among adherents to [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_sociology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]pure sociology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], social theory has an appeal because it takes the focus away from the individual (which is how most humans look at the world) and focuses it on the society itself and the social forces which control our lives. This sociological insight (or [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_imagination"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]sociological imagination[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]) has through the years appealed to students and others dissatisfied with the status quo because it carries the assumption that societal structures and patterns are either random, arbitrary or controlled by specific powerful groups -- thus implying the possibility of change. This has a particular appeal to champions of the underdog, the dispossessed, and/or those at the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder because it implies that their position in society is undeserved and/or the result of oppression.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]The science and mathematics of sociology[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Sociologists study society and social behavior by examining the groups and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_institution"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social institutions[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] people form, as well as various social, religious, political, and business organizations. They also study the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviour"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]behaviour[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] of, and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_interaction"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social interaction[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] among, groups, trace their origin and growth, and analyze the influence of group [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]activities[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] on individual members. Sociologists are concerned with the characteristics of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_%28sociology%29"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social groups[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], organizations, and institutions; the ways individuals are affected by each other and by the groups to which they belong; and the effect of social traits such as sex, age, or race on a person’s daily life. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy. Most sociologists work in one or more specialties, such as social organization, [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratification"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social stratification[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_mobility"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social mobility[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]; [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Racial_and_ethnic_relations&action=edit"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]racial and ethnic relations[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]; [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]education[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]; [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]family[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]; [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social psychology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]; [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sociology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]urban[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rural_sociology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]rural[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_sociology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]political[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_sociology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]comparative sociology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]; [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_roles"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]sex roles[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationships"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]relationships[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]; [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demography"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]demography[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]; [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerontology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]gerontology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]; [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]criminology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]; and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_practice"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]sociological practice[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman].[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Although sociology emerged in large part from Comte's conviction that sociology eventually would subsume all other areas of scientific inquiry, in the end, sociology did not replace the other sciences. Instead, sociology came to be identified with the other social sciences ([/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]psychology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]economics[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], etc.). Today, sociology studies humankind's [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]organizations[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_institution"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social institutions[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and their [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_interaction"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social interactions[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], largely employing a [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_method"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]comparative method[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. The discipline has concentrated particularly on the organization of complex [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_society"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]industrial societies[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. Recent sociologists, taking cues from anthropologists, have noted the "[/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_culture"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Western[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] emphasis" of the field. In response, many sociology departments around the world are encouraging multi-cultural and multi-national studies.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Today, sociologists research micro-[/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_structure"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]structures[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] that organize society, such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]race[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] or [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnicity"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]ethnicity[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social class[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_role"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]gender roles[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and institutions such as the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]family[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]; social processes that represent [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deviation"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]deviation[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] from, or the breakdown of, these structures, including [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]crime[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divorce"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]divorce[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]; and micro-processes such as interpersonal interactions and the [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialization"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]socialization[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] of individuals.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Sociologists often rely on [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_method"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]quantitative methods[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_research"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social research[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] to describe large patterns in social relationships and in order to develop models that can help predict social [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]change[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. Other branches of sociology believe that [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_method"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]qualitative methods[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] - such as focused [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interview"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]interviews[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], group discussions and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnography"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]ethnographic[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] methods - allow for a better understanding of social processes. Some sociologists argue for a middle ground that sees quantitative and qualitative approaches as complementary. Results from one approach can fill gaps in the other approach. For example, quantitative methods could describe large or general [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]patterns[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] while qualitative approaches could help to understand how individuals understand those patterns.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Social research methods[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]There are several main methods that sociologists use to gather [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]empirical evidence[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], which include [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questionnaire"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]questionnaires[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interview"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]interviews[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participant_observation"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]participant observation[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planning_statistical_research"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]statistical research[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman].[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]The problem with all of these approaches is that they are all based on what theoretical position the researcher adopts to explain and understand the society the researcher sees in front of themselves. If one is a functionalist like [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Émile Durkheim[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], one is likely to interpret everything in terms of large-scale social structures. A [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]symbolic interactionist[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] is likely to concentrate on the way people understand one another. A researcher who is a [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Marxist[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] or a [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Marxist"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]neo-Marxist[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] is likely to interpret everything through the grid of class struggle and economics. [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenologist"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Phenomenologists[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] tend to think that there is only the way in which people construct their meanings of reality, and nothing else. One of the real problems is that many sociologists argue that only one theoretical approach is the "right" one, and it is theirs. In practice, sociologists often tend to mix and match different approaches and methods, since each method produces particular types of data.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]The [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Internet[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] is of interest for sociologists in three ways: as a tool for [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_research"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]research[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], for example, in using [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]online[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questionnaire"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]questionnaires[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] instead of paper ones, as a discussion platform, and as a research topic. Sociology of the Internet in the last sense includes analysis of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_communities"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]online communities[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] (e.g. as found in [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsgroups"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]newsgroups[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]), [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_communities"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]virtual communities[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_World"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]virtual worlds[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], organisational change catalysed through new media like the Internet, and societal change at-large in the transformation from [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_society"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]industrial[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] to [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informational_society"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]informational society[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] (or to [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_society"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]information society[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]).[/FONT][/SIZE]
[B][FONT=Times New Roman]Sociology and other social sciences[/FONT][/B]

[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]In the early 20th century, sociologists and psychologists who conducted research in industrial societies contributed to the development of [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]anthropology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman]. Anthropologists also conducted research in industrial societies. Today sociology and anthropology are better contrasted according to different theoretical concerns and methods rather than objects of study.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Sociobiology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] is a relatively new field to branch from both the sociology and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]biology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] disciplines. Although the field once rapidly gained acceptance, it has remained highly controversial as it attempts to find ways in which social behavior and structures can be explained by evolutionary and biological processes. Sociobiologists are often criticized by sociologists for depending too greatly on the effects of genes in defining behavior. Sociobiologists often respond, however, by citing a complex relationship between nature and nurture. In this regard, sociobiology is closely related to [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_anthropology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]physical anthropology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]zoology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]evolutionary psychology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behavioral_ecology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]human behavioral ecology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]dual inheritance theory[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. Nonetheless, for most in the discipline, its ideas are unacceptable. Some sociobiologists, such as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Machalek"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Richard Machalek[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman], call for the field of sociology to encompass the study of non-human societies along with human beings.[/FONT][/SIZE]
[FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Sociology has some links with [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]social psychology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3], but the former is more interested in social structures and the latter in social behaviors. A distinction should be made between these and [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]forensic[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] studies within these disciplines, particularly where [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]anatomy[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3] is involved. These latter studies might be better named as [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_psychology"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]Forensic psychology[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]. As shown by the work of Marx and others, [/SIZE][/FONT][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"][COLOR=windowtext][FONT=Times New Roman][SIZE=3]economics[/SIZE][/FONT][/COLOR][/URL][SIZE=3][FONT=Times New Roman] has influenced sociological theories.[/FONT][/SIZE]