Sociology Notes
 

[B][SIZE="5"]THE DIVISION OF LABOR BY(Theory of social solidarity): EMILE DURKHEIM[/SIZE][/B]

In his 1893 work The Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim examined how social order was maintained in different types of societies.

[B]He focused on the division of labor, and examined how it differed in traditional societies and modern societies. [/B]

Authors before him such as Herbert Spencer and Ferdinand Toennies had argued that societies evolved much like living organisms, moving from a simple state to a more complex one resembling the workings of complex machines.

Durkheim reversed this formula, adding his theory to the growing pool of theories of social progress, social evolutionism and social darwinism.

[B]He argued that traditional societies were 'mechanical' and were held together by the fact that everyone was more or less the same, and hence had things in common. [/B]

In traditional societies, argues Durkheim, the collective consciousness entirely subsumes individual consciousness-social norms are strong and social behavior is well-regulated.

[B]In modern societies, he argued, the highly complex division of labor resulted in 'organic' solidarity. [/B]

Different specializations in employment and social roles created dependencies that tied people to one another, since people no longer could count on filling all of their needs by themselves.

[B]In 'mechanical' societies, for example, subsistence farmers live in communities which are self-sufficient and knit together by a common heritage and common job. [/B]

[B]In modern 'organic' societies, workers earn money, and must rely on other people who specialize in certain products (groceries, clothing, etc.) to meet their needs.[/B]Here customs and fashions are popular.The pace of social change is fast.Here groups are found on give and take basis.

The result of increasing division of labor, according to Durkheim, is that individual consciousness emerges distinct from collective consciousness-often finding itself in conflict with collective consciousness.

[B]Durkheim also made an association of the kind of solidarity in a given society and the preponderance of a law system.[/B]

[B]He found that in societies with mechanical solidarity the standard of living is similar ,people follow similar customs and rituals ,similar attitudes , beliefs and thoughts on the basis of similarity. Solidarity among the people is found very high.[/B]law is generally repressive: the agent of a crime or deviant behavior would suffer a punishment, that in fact would compensate collective conscience neglected by the crime-the punishment acts more to preserve the unity of consciences.

[B]On the other hand, in societies with organic solidarity the law is generally restitutive:[/B] it aims not to punish, but instead to restitute normal activity of a complex society.

The rapid change in society due to increasing division of labor thus produces a state of confusion with regard to norms and increasing impersonality in social life, leading eventually to relative normlessness, i.e. the breakdown of social norms regulating behavior; Durkheim labels this state anomie.

From a state of anomie come all forms of deviant behavior, most notably suicide.



[SIZE="5"][B]EMILE DURKHEIM Study of Suicide[/B][/SIZE]


[B]Durkheim was the first to argue that the causes of suicide were to be found in social factors and not individual personalities. [/B]Observing that the rate of suicide varied with time and place, Durkheim looked for causes linked to these factors other than emotional stress.
He looked at the degree to which people feel integrated into the structure of society and their social surroundings as social factors producing suicide and argued that suicide rates are affected by the different social contexts in which they emerge.

[B][SIZE="3"]Durkheim also distinguished between three types of suicide:[/SIZE][/B]

[B]•Anomic Suicide:[/B] Anomic suicide happens when the disintegrating forces in the society make individuals feel lost or alone.When the norms and the manners in the people are suddenly broken.There are sudden changes which are unexpected. Anomic suicide reflects an individual's moral confusion and lack of social direction for him social laws become weak which fail to control his behaviour and he fails to control his actions. When the response for the norms vanished the laws of government are not respected by the people and state of lawlessness is prevailed.Social laws are shattered.life of people ends in despair.Failure of economic development failure of business or slow downs, marriages are postponed , division of labour to produce Durkheim's organic solidarity.The people are worried for future to say what will happen tomorrow? Durkheim explains that this is a state of moral disorder where man does not know the limits on his desires, and is constantly in a state of disappointment.


[B]•Altruistic Suicide: [/B]Altruistic suicide happens when there is excessive regulation of individuals by social forces. An example is someone who commits suicide for the sake of a religious or political cause. It occurs in societies with high integration, where individual needs are seen as less important than the society's needs as a whole. They thus occur on the opposite integration scale as egoistic suicide. As individual interest would not be considered important. Durkheim stated that in an altruistic society there would be little reason for people to commit suicide. He stated one exception, namely when the individual is expected to kill themselves on behalf of society – a primary example being the soldier in military service. People who commit altruistic suicide subordinate themselves to collective expectations, even when death is the result.

[B]•Egoistic Suicide:[/B] Egoistic suicide happens when people feel totally detached from society. Ordinarily, people are integrated into society by work roles, ties to family and community, and other social bonds. When these bonds are weakened through retirement or loss of family and friends, the likelihood of egoistic suicide increases. Egoistic suicide reflects a prolonged sense of not belonging, of not being integrated in a community, It is the result of a weakening of the bonds that normally integrate individuals into the collectivity: in other words a breakdown or decrease of social integration. Durkheim refers to this type of suicide as the result of "excessive individuation", meaning that the individual becomes increasingly detached from other members of his community. Those individuals who were not sufficiently bound to social groups and were left with little social support or guidance, and therefore tended to commit suicide on an increased basis. An example Durkheim discovered was that of unmarried people, particularly males, who, with less to bind and connect them to stable social norms and goals, committed suicide at higher rates than married people.

EMILE DURKHEIM Study of Social Facts
 

[B][SIZE="5"]EMILE DURKHEIM Study of Social Facts[/SIZE][/B]

[B]According to Durkheim, social facts (or social phenomena or forces) are the subject matter of sociology. [/B]Social facts are , and must be studied distinct from biological and psychological phenomenon. They can be defined as patterns of behavior that are capable of exercising some coercive power upon individuals. They are guides and controls of conduct that are external to the individual in the form of group norms, mores and folkways. Through socialization and education these rules become internalized in the consciousness of the individual. These social constraints and guides become moral obligations to obey social rules.

The central issue in Durkheim's work concerns the source of social order and disorder.

[B]According to Durkheim, the desires and self-interests of human beings can only be held in check by forces that originate outside of the individual. [/B]"The more one has, the more one wants, since satisfactions received only stimulate instead of filling needs." Durkheim characterizes this external force as a collective conscience, a common social bond that is expressed by the ideas, values, norms, beliefs and ideologies of the culture, institutionalized in the social structure, and internalized by individual members of the culture. He elaborated the cause and effects of weakening group ties on the individual in his two works,

“evolutionary theory “ibn-khaldun”
 

[B][SIZE="5"]“EVOLUTIONARY THEORY “IBN-KHALDUN”[/SIZE][/B]

The very first form and foundation of social evolution was the philosophy of organic society.

Organic society is the prospective that societies are really living organisms that experience cyclic birth, growth, maturity, decline, and ultimately death due to universal causes that undergo many of the same stages and developments that animals and humans go through.

The very first of these philosophies can be traced back to the 14th century in the writings of Ibn Khaldun, an Islamic scholar.

[B]Ibn Khaldun uses the term Asabiyyah to describe the bond of cohesion among humans in a group forming community.[/B]

The bond, Asabiyyah, exists at any level of civilization, from nomadic society to states and empires.

[B]Asabiyyah is most strong in the nomadic phase, and decreases as civilization advances.[/B]

As this Asabiyyah declines, another more compelling Asabiyyah may take its place; thus, civilizations rise and fall, and history describes these cycles of Asabiyyah as they play out.

The Asabiyyah cycle described by Ibn Khaldun was true for nearly all civilizations before the modern era. Nomadic invaders had always ended up adopting the religion and culture of the civilizations they conquered, which was true for various Arab, Berber, Turkic and Mongol invaders that invaded the medieval Islamic world and ended up adopting Islamic religion and culture.

Beyond the Muslim world, the Asabiyyah cycle was also true for every other pre-modern civilization, whether in China whose dynastic cycles resemble the Asabiyyah cycles described by Ibn Khaldun, in Europe where waves of barbarian invaders adopted Christianity and Greco-Roman culture, or in India or Persia where nomadic invaders assimilated into those civilizations.

The labor theory of value (karl marx)
 

[B][SIZE="5"]THE LABOR THEORY OF VALUE (KARL MARX)[/SIZE][/B]

Karl Marx's labor theory of value asserts that the value of an object is solely a result of the labor expended to produce it. According to this theory, the more labor or labor time that goes into an object, the more it is worth. Marx defined value as "consumed labor time", and stated that "all goods, considered economically, are only the product of labor and cost nothing except labor".

The labor theory of value is the fundamental premise of Marx's economics and the basis of his analysis of the free market.
If it is correct, then much of Marx's critique of capitalism is also correct.
But if it is false, virtually all of Marx's economic theory is wrong.

[B]Here is an example of how the labor theory of value works: [/B]

A worker in a factory is given $30 worth of material, and after working 3 hours producing a good, and using $10 worth of fuel to run a machine, he creates a product which is sold for $100.

According the Marx, the labor and only the labor of the worker increased the value of the natural materials to $100. The worker is thus justly entitled to a $60 payment, or $20 per hour.

If the worker is employed by a factory owner who pays him only $15 per hour, according to Marx the $5 per hour the factory owner receives is simply a ripoff. The factory owner has done nothing to earn the money and the $5 per hour he receives is "surplus value", representing exploitation of the worker. Even the tools which the factory owner provided were, according to Marx, necessarily produced by other workers.

[B]According to the labor theory of value, all profits are the rightful earnings of the workers, and when they are kept from the workers by capitalists, workers are simply being robbed. [/B]On the basis of this theory, Marx called for the elimination of profits, for workers to seize factories and for the overthrow of the "tyranny" of capitalism. His call to action has been heeded in many countries throughout the world.

Max Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy
 

[B][SIZE="5"]Max Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy[/SIZE][/B]

He wrote about the emergence of bureaucracy from more traditional organisational forms
(like feudalism) and it's rising pre-eminence in modern society.


[B]Max Weber [/B]
Max Weber (1864-1920), was a German sociologist. He proposed different characteristics found in effective bureaucracies that would effectively conduct decision-making, control resources, protect workers and accomplish organisational goals.Weber's contributions were indented to supplant old organisational structures that existed in the earlier periods of industrialisation. He wrote about the emergence of bureaucracy from more traditional organisational forms (like feudalism) and it's rising pre-eminence in modern society.

As a German academic, Weber was primarily interested in the reasons behind the employees' actions and in why people who work in an organisation accept the authority of their superiors and comply with the rules of the organisation.

[B]Background of Max Weber's bureaucratic model[/B]
Weber's focus on the trend of rationalisation led him to concern himself with the operation and expansion of large-scale enterprises in both the public and private sectors of modern societies. Bureaucracy can be considered to be a particular case of rationalisation, or rationalisation applied to human organisation. Bureaucratic coordination of human action, Weber believed, is the distinctive mark of modern social structures. In order to study these organisations, both historically and in contemporary society,

[B]Weber developed the characteristics of an ideal-type bureaucracy:[/B]

Hierarchy of authority
Impersonality
Written rules of conduct
Promotion based on achievement
Specialised division of labour
Efficiency


[B][SIZE="3"]Characteristics of bureaucratic model[/SIZE][/B]
Each characteristic is described in relation to which traditional features of administrative systems they were intended to succeed.

[B]Bureaucracy is goal-oriented[/B]
According to Weber, bureaucracies are goal-oriented organisations designed according to rational principles in order to efficiently attain their goals. Offices are ranked in a hierarchical order, with information flowing up to the chain of command, directives flowing down. Operations of the organisations are characterised by impersonal rules that explicitly state duties, responsibilities, standardised procedures and conduct of office holders. Offices are highly specialised. Appointments to these offices are made according to specialised qualifications rather than ascribed criteria. All of these ideal characteristics have one goal, to promote the efficient attainment of the organization's goals.


[B]Management by Rule[/B]
A bureaucracy follows a consistent set of rules that control the functions of the organisation. Management controls the lower levels of the organisation's hierarchy by applying established rules in a consistent and predictable manner.

[B]Firm division of labour[/B]
The jurisdictional areas are clearly specified, and each area has a specific set of official duties and rights that cannot be changed.
This division of labour should minimise arbitrary assignments of duties found in more traditional structures, in which the division of labour was not firm and regular, and in which the leader could change duties at any time.

[B]Formal hierarchy of offices[/B]
Each office is controlled and supervised by a higher ranking office. However, lower offices maintain a right to appeal decisions made higher in the hierarchy.
This replaces a more traditional system, in which power and authority relations are more diffuse, and not based on a clear hierarchical order.

[B]Rational/ defined legal authority[/B]
A bureaucracy is founded on rational-legal authority. This type of authority rests on the belief in the "legality" of formal rules and hierarchies, and in the right of those elevated in the hierarchy to possess authority and issue commands. Authority is given to officials based on their skills, position and authority placed formally in each position.

[B]Creation of rules to govern performance[/B]
Rules are specified to govern official decisions and actions. These formal rules are relatively stable, exhaustive and easily understood. This supplants old systems, in which rules were either ill-defined or stated vaguely, and in which leaders could change the rules for conducting the daily work arbitrarily.

[B]Separation of personal from official property and rights[/B]
Official property rights concerning e.g. machines or tools belong to the office or department — not the officeholder. Personal property is separated from official property. This supplants earlier systems, in which personal and official property rights were not separated to the needed extent.

[B]Selection based on qualifications[/B]
Officials are recruited based on qualifications, and are appointed, not elected, to the office. People are compensated with a salary, and are not compensated with benefits such as rights to land, power etc.

[B]Clear career paths/security of tenure[/B]
Employment in the organisations is seen as a career for officials. An official is a full-time employee, and anticipates a lifelong career. After an introduction period, the employee is given tenure, which protects the employee from arbitrary dismissal.

[B]Written Document[/B]
All decisions, rules and actions taken by the organisation are formulated and recorded in writing. Written documents ensure that there is continuity of the organisation's policies and procedures.

[B][SIZE="3"]Max Weber's model?a model for Pakistan's bureaucracy[/SIZE][/B]
According to Max Weber, these bureaucratic elements can be taken and applied as solutions and guidelines for the problems or defects existing within earlier and more traditional administrative systems in Pakistan. These elements if viewed and applied aptly, can contribute as a part of the whole system that by combining and instituting effectively, can increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the administrative structure.

[B]This bureaucratic structure can to a greater extent protect employees in Pakistan from arbitrary rulings from leaders, and can potentially give a greater sense of security to the employees.[/B]

Additionally, the bureaucratic structure can create an opportunity for employees to become specialists within one specific area, which would increase the effectiveness and efficiency in each area of the organisation.

[B]Finally,[/B] when rules for performance are relatively stable, employees will be having a greater possibility to act creatively within the realm of their respective duties and sub-tasks, and to find creative ways to accomplish rather stable goals and targets.

[B]Conclusion[/B]
In a nutshell, Max Weber’s theory of bureaucracy is relevant in Pakistan also. Tightly organized hierarchy, fixed rules, division of labour and no emotional attachments are the attributes of this model. Pakistan’s bureaucratic model is mainly an outcome of max Weber’s philosophy. The most important of all, the bureaucrats are devoid of emotional attachments. There are fixed rules and regulation which they have to follow in the daily routine. However, there is some deviation from this particular phenomenon.

Socialization: Human development
 

[B][SIZE="5"]SOCIALIZATION: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT[/SIZE][/B]


1.The newborn having the capacity to become a member of human society.

2.The infant has the capacity to learn human social behavior. This capacity is provided by nature to every normal child. But

3.The newborn child cannot become social being unless there is interaction with other human beings.

It is a matter of survival of human child; and then to transform the human child into a social being he needs interaction with other members of human society without which learning capacity is lost.

[B]This process of transformation is socialization.[/B]

[B]Socialization is process whereby people learn through interaction with others that which they must know in order to survive and function within society.
[/B]
In this process, as defined by the local culture, they learn what roles are associated with their status.They learn how to play those roles.

[B]Therefore it is a matter of NATURE and NURTURE.[/B]

[B]NATURE[/B]
Nature implies the contribution of heredity to the human being, which may include physical- characteristics and what is inside the human body.
Presumably physical and psychological characteristics can be transmitted through heredity.
Whatever is being transmitted through heredity may be considered as human potential given by nature.


[B]NUTURE:(Learned)[/B]
As said earlier, in the 20th century, the biological explanations of human behavior were challenged.
It was assumed that much of the human behavior was not instinctive; rather it was learned.
Thus, people everywhere were equally human, differing only in their learned cultural patterns, which highlighted the role of nurture.


[B][SIZE="3"]AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION[/SIZE][/B]

Socialization agents are the sources from which we learn about society and ourselves.

People and groups that influence our self-concept, emotions, attitudes, and behavior are called agents of socialization.
They are our socializes. People who serve as socializing agents include

[B]family members,
friends,
neighbors,
the police,
the employers,
teachers,
political leaders,
business leaders,
religious leaders,
sports stars,
and entertainers.[/B]

Socialization agents also can be fictional characters that we read about or see on television or in the movies.


Every social experience we have affects us in at least a small way.
However, several familiar settings have special importance in the socialization process. Some of the important agents of socialization are as below.

[B]The Family[/B]

The family has the greatest impact on socialization. Infants are totally dependent on others, and the responsibility to look after the young ones typically falls on parents and other family members. It is a matter of child survival.
Family begins the lifelong process of defining ourselves of being male or female and the child learns the appropriate roles associated with his/her gender.
Who we are? The perceptions about ourselves and the family status are conferred on us.
The class position of parents affects how they raise their children.
Class position shapes not just how much money parents have to spend, but what they expect of their children.

[B]The School[/B]
Schooling enlarges children’s social world to include people with backgrounds different from their own.
the schools teach children a wide range of knowledge and skills.
Through different activities schools help in inculcating values of
patriotism, democracy, justice, honesty, and competition.

[B]Peer Groups[/B]
Peer group is the one whose members have interests, social position, and age in common.
Unlike the family and the school, the peer group lets children escape the direct supervision of adults.
Among the peers, children learn how to form relationships on their own.
Peer groups also offer the chance to discuss interests that adults may not share with their children (such as clothing or other activities).
In a rapidly changing society, peer groups have great influence on an individual.
The importance of peer groups typically peaks during adolescence, when young people begin to break away from their families and think of themselves as adults.
Neighborhood and schools provide a variety of peer groups.

[B]The Mass Media[/B]
The mass media have an enormous effect on our attitudes and behavior, and on shaping people’s opinions about issues as well as what they buy.
Where television provides lot of entertainment, at the same time it is a big agent of socialization.


[B]Religion[/B]
Religion plays significant role in the socialization of most Pakistanis.
It influences morality, becoming a key component in people’s ideas of right and wrong.

The influence of religion extends to many areas of our lives.
pak and paleet, and manners appropriate for formal occasions.



[B][SIZE="3"]Provision of Learning Situations[/SIZE][/B]

The provision of learning situations is very crucial in the development of human potentials. Human group plays a pivotal role in this respect by:

[B]The provision of learning situations; [/B]
These learning situations are provided automatically in the day-to-day routine activities in the family.
The children listen to people talking around them, see them walking, and playing different roles.

A girl looks at her mother the way she looks after the cooking arrangements, the way she cooks the food, the way she looks after the guests, and other household chores.
She is very likely to copy the behavior of her mother.


[B]The provision of guidance; and [/B]
The parents may have to provide real guidance to the children for in the pronunciation of certain words, taking steps in walking, wearing of clothes, answering the telephone, and so on.
Parents try to nurture their child as it is considered appropriate under the cultural norms.


[B]Controlling the behavior. [/B]
Since all behavior is governed by the cultural values and norms, the parents make it sure that the child acts as it is culturally permissible.
For an appropriate behavior just giving a pat on the shoulder may reward the child, or placing a kiss on the face, or giving a big hug, each may be rewarding.
Similarly the group may apply punishments to the socialize in case the behavior is not in accordance with cultural expectations.
Such punishments may be the withdrawal of love and affection, social boycott, withholding of pocket money, corporal punishment, and so on as permissible under the cultural norms.

Human groups like the family with whom the child normally has the first contact provide these learning opportunities.

[B]Personal Social learning[/B]
Whereas the group provides the learning situations to the child, the child also takes certain actions about what he or she experiences in the learning situations. These actions are:

Imitation;
Experimentation; and
Adjustment.

In many cases the socialize tries to copy the behavior of others in the learning situations.
The socialize may be talking like others, walking like them, shouting like them, and so on.
To what extent he or she can imitate can be determined by the outcome of the experience of giving a trial to any imitative behavior. The


This whole process may be called socialization,
which is a lifelong learning experience by which individuals develop their human potentials and learn the patterns of their culture.
As a result of socialization process the individuals develop their self-concept.


[B][SIZE="3"]SOCIALIZATION THE LIFE COURSE[/SIZE][/B]

Life course is a biological process. In this process there is a personal change from infancy through old age and death brought about as a result of the interaction between biographical events and social events.

The series of major events, the stages of our lives from birth to death, may be called life course. Movement through life course is marked by a succession of stages by age.

Analysts have tried to depict the typical stages through which we pass, but they have not been able to agree on standard division of the life course.

As such life course is biological process, which has been divided into four distinct stages:

[B]1. childhood,
2. adolescence,
3. adulthood,
4. and old age.[/B]

Life course stages present characteristic problems and transitions that require learning new and unlearning familiar routines.
Through the process of socialization society tries to prepare its members for taking up the roles and statuses associated with life course stages.
Each life course stage by age is also affected by other factors like social class, gender, ethnicity and human experience.
People’s life experiences also vary depending on when, in the history of society, they were born.


[B]CHILDHOOD[/B]

Childhood usually covers the first 12 years of life: time for learning and carefree play.
Children in lower class have always assumed adult responsibilities sooner than their other class counterparts.

In childhood an individual is made to learn the skills needed in adult life.

[B]ADOLESCENCE[/B]

Just as industrialization helped create childhood as a distinct stage of life,
adolescence emerged as a buffer between childhood and adulthood.
We generally link adolescence, or teenage years, to emotional and social turmoil, when the youth try to develop their own individual identities.
In these emotional and social spheres the young people appear to be in conflict with their parents.
Establishing some independence and learning specialized skills for adult life.


[B]ADULTHOOD[/B]

Adulthood, which begins between the late teens and the early thirties,
depending on the social background, is a time for accomplishment.
They pursue careers and raise families.
These youth embark on careers and raise families of their own.
They reflect on their own achievements---Did the dreams come true?

[B]Early Adulthood:[/B]

It covers the period from 20 to about 40 years, and during this period personalities are formed.
They learn to manage the day-to-day responsibilities personally.
They try to make an adjustment with spouse, and bring up their children in their own way.
They often have many conflicting priorities: parents, partner, children, schooling, and work.

[B]Middle Adulthood:[/B]
Roughly covers the period from 40 to 60 yrs.
the individuals assess actual achievements in view of their earlier expectations.
Children are grown up.
Growing older means facing physical decline.


[B]OLD AGE[/B]

The societies attach different meaning to this stage of life.
Pakistani society often gives older people control over most of the land and other wealth.
Since the rate of change in Pakistani society is not very fast,
older people amass great wisdom during their lifetime, which earns them much respect.
On the other hand in industrial societies old are considered as conservative, unimportant, obsolete.
In a fast changing society their knowledge appears to be irrelevant.

[B]conclusions[/B]

This survey of the life course leads us to two major conclusions.
First the life course is largely a social construction.
Second With every stage of life course we learn different problems things situation never confront before.



[B][SIZE="3"]Charles H. Cooley: The looking Glass Self[/SIZE][/B]

Others represent a mirror (which people used to call a “looking glass”) in which we can see ourselves.

What we think of ourselves, then, depends on what we think others think of us.
For example, if we think others see us as clever, we will think ourselves in the same way.

But if we feel they think of us as clumsy, then that is how we will see ourselves.
Cooley used the phrase looking glass self to mean a self-image based on how we think others see us.

Our sense of self develops from interaction with others.
The term looking glass self was coined by Cooley to describe the process by which a sense of self develops.

[B]The looking glass self contains three elements:

1. We imagine how we appear to those around us.
2. We interpret others’ reactions.
3. We develop a self-concept.[/B]

Based on our interpretations of the reactions of others, we develop feelings and ideas about ourselves.

Sociological Research: Designs, Methods
 

[B][SIZE="3"]Sociological Research: Designs, Methods[/SIZE][/B]

Sociologists use many different designs and methods to study society and social behavior. Most sociological research involves ethnography, or “field work” designed to depict the characteristics of a population as fully as possible.

[B]Three popular social research designs (models) are[/B]

[B]1.Cross-sectional,[/B] in which scientists study a number of individuals of different ages who have the same trait or characteristic of interest at a single time

[B]2.Longitudinal[/B], in which scientists study the same individuals or society repeatedly over a specified period of time

[B]3.Cross-sequential[/B], in which scientists test individuals in a cross-sectional sample more than once over a
specified period of time

[B]Six of the most popular sociological research methods (procedures) are[/B]


[B]Case study research[/B]

In case study research, an investigator studies an individual or small group of individuals with an unusual condition or situation. Case studies are typically clinical in scope. The investigator (often a clinical sociologist) sometimes uses self-report measures to acquire quantifiable data on the subject. A comprehensive case study, including a long-term follow-up, can last months or years.

On the positive side, case studies obtain useful information about individuals and small groups. On the negative side, they tend to apply only to individuals with similar characteristics rather than to the general population. The high likelihood of the investigator's biases affecting subjects' responses limits the generalizability of this method.

[B]Survey research[/B]

Survey research involves interviewing or administering questionnaires, or written surveys, to large numbers of people. The investigator analyzes the data obtained from surveys to learn about similarities, differences, and trends. He or she then makes predictions about the population being studied.

As with most research methods, survey research brings both advantages and disadvantages. Advantages include obtaining information from a large number of respondents, conducting personal interviews at a time convenient for respondents, and acquiring data as inexpensively as possible. “Mail-in” surveys have the added advantage of ensuring anonymity and thus prompting respondents to answer questions truthfully.

Disadvantages of survey research include volunteer bias, interviewer bias, and distortion. Volunteer bias occurs when a sample of volunteers is not representative of the general population. Subjects who are willing to talk about certain topics may answer surveys differently than those who are not willing to talk. Interviewer bias occurs when an interviewer's expectations or insignificant gestures (for example, frowning or smiling) inadvertently influence a subject's responses one way or the other. Distortion occurs when a subject does not respond to questions honestly.

[B]Observational research[/B]

Because distortion can be a serious limitation of surveys, observational research involves directly observing subjects' reactions, either in a laboratory (called laboratory observation) or in a natural setting (called naturalistic observation). Observational research reduces the possibility that subjects will not give totally honest accounts of the experiences, not take the study seriously, fail to remember, or feel embarrassed.

Observational research has limitations, however. Subject bias is common, because volunteer subjects may not be representative of the general public. Individuals who agree to observation and monitoring may function differently than those who do not. They may also function differently in a laboratory setting than they do in other settings.


[B]Correlational research[/B]

A sociologist may also conduct correlational research. A correlation is a relationship between two variables (or “factors that change”). These factors can be characteristics, attitudes, behaviors, or events. Correlational research attempts to determine if a relationship exists between the two variables, and the degree of that relationship.

A social researcher can use case studies, surveys, interviews, and observational research to discover correlations.

Correlations are either positive (to +1.0), negative (to −1.0), or nonexistent (0.0). In a positive correlation, the values of the variables increase or decrease (“co-vary”) together. In a negative correlation, one variable increases as the other decreases. In a nonexistent correlation, no relationship exists between the variables.

People commonly confuse correlation with causation. Correlational data do not indicate cause-and-effect relationships. When a correlation exists, changes in the value of one variable reflect changes in the value of the other. The correlation does not imply that one variable causes the other, only that both variables somehow relate to one another. To study the effects that variables have on each other, an investigator must conduct an experiment.

[B]Experimental research[/B]

Experimental research attempts to determine how and why something happens. Experimental research tests the way in which an independent variable (the factor that the scientist manipulates) affects a dependent variable (the factor that the scientist observes).

A number of factors can affect the outcome of any type of experimental research. One is finding samples that are random and representative of the population being studied. Another is experimenter bias, in which the researcher's expectations about what should or should not happen in the study sway the results. Still another is controlling for extraneous variables, such as room temperature or noise level, that may interfere with the results of the experiment. Only when the experimenter carefully controls for extraneous variables can she or he draw valid conclusions about the effects of specific variables on other variables.

[B]Cross-cultural research[/B]

Sensitivity to others' norms, folkways, values, mores, attitudes, customs, and practices necessitates knowledge of other societies and cultures. Sociologists may conduct cross-cultural research, or research designed to reveal variations across different groups of people. Most cross-cultural research involves survey, direct observation, and participant observation methods of research.

Participant observation requires that an “observer” become a member of his or her subjects' community. An advantage of this method of research is the opportunity it provides to study what actually occurs within a community, and then consider that information within the political, economic, social, and religious systems of that community. Cross-cultural research demonstrates that Western cultural standards do not necessarily apply to other societies. What may be “normal” or acceptable for one group may be “abnormal” or unacceptable for another.

[B]Research with existing data, or secondary analysis[/B]

Some sociologists conduct research by using data that other social scientists have already collected. The use of publicly accessible information is known as secondary analysis, and is most common in situations in which collecting new data is impractical or unnecessary. Sociologists may obtain statistical data for analysis from businesses, academic institutions, and governmental agencies, to name only a few sources. Or they may use historical or library information to generate their hypotheses.

[B][SIZE="5"]Individual and Society[/SIZE][/B]

Individual is basic unit of Society.

Man is a social animal. He lives in social groups in communities and in society.

Society has become an essential condition for human life to arise and to continue.

Society not only controls our movements but shapes our identity, our thought and our emotions.


[B][SIZE="3"]Society[/SIZE][/B]


August Comte the father of sociology saw society as a social organism possessing a harmony of structure and function.

[B][COLOR="Blue"]We can define society as a group of people who share a common culture, occupy a particular territorial area and feel themselves to constitute a unified and distinct entity. It is the mutual interactions and interrelations of individuals and groups. [/COLOR][/B]

The term society is most fundamental to sociology. It is derived from the Latin word socius which means companionship or friendship.

According to George Simmel it is this element of sociability which defines the true essence of society.


[B][SIZE="3"]Characteristics of Society[/SIZE][/B]

[B]society is a largest human group.[/B]


[B](1) Likeness:[/B]
Likeness is the most important characteristic of society.Without a sense of likeness, there could be no mutual recognition of' belonging together' and therefore no society.

[B](2) Differences :[/B]
Along with likeness, differences are another important characteristic of society. Because society involves differences and it depends on it as much as on likeness. Because differences is complementary to social relationship. If people will be alike in all respect society could not be formed and there would be little reciprocity and relationship became limited.

[B](3) Inter-dependence :(fulfils the human needs)[/B]
Interdependence is another important characteristic of society. Man is a social animal he is dependent on others. No individual is self sufficient.

[B](4) Co-operation and Conflict:[/B]
Both co-operation and conflict are two another important characteristics of society. "Society is Cooperation crossed by conflict". Co-operation is essentially essential for the formation of society. Without co-operation there can be no society.

[B](5) Society is a network or web of social relationship:[/B]
Social relationships are the foundation of society. That is why famous sociologist Maclver remarked that society is a network of social relationship.

[B](6) Permanent Nature:[/B]
Permanency is another important characteristic of society. It is not a temporary organisation of individuals. Society continues to exist even after the death of individual members.

[B](8) Society is Dynamic :[/B]
The very nature of society is dynamic and changeable. No society is static. Every society changes and changes continuously. Old customs, traditions, folkways, mores, values and institutions got changed and new customs and values takes place. Society changes from its traditional nature to modern nature.

[B](10) Comprehensive Culture:[/B]
Culture is another important characteristic of society.
Each and every society has it's own culture which distinguishes it from others.
Culture is the way of life of the members of a society and includes their values, beliefs, art, morals etc.

[B](11) Collection of individuals:[/B]

[B](12) Accommodation and Assimilation Integration of Individuals:[/B]
This two associative social process is also important for the smooth functioning and continuity of society. Hence it is also another characteristic of society.


[B]Goal of Society? [/B]

Goal of Society is SOCIAL PROGRESS.

[B][SIZE="3"]Types of Society[/SIZE][/B]

Writers have classified societies into various categories Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft of Tonnies, mechanical and organic solidarities of Durkheim, status and contract of Maine, and militant and industrial societies of Spencer.

All these thinkers have broadly divided society into pre-industrial and post-industrial societies.

Sociologists like Comte based their classification of societies on intellectual development.

Most of them concede the evolutionary nature of society- one type leading to the other.

One more way of dividing societies is that of Marx. His classification of society is based on the institutional framework of society as determined by a group of people who control the means of production.

Marx distinguishes five principal types of societies: primitive, Asiatic, ancient, feudal and capitalist.


[B][SIZE="3"]Types of Society[/SIZE][/B]

[B]Open Society

Close Society

Primitive Society

Folk Society

Industrial Society

Non- Industrial Society

Urban Society

Rural Society

Secular Society

Sacred Society
[/B]



[B][SIZE="3"]Difference observed between Society and Community [/SIZE][/B]

Some of the difference between society and community are as follows:
The term society and community are two important concept used in Sociology. There exists both a similarity as well as differences between the two. But in a wider sense both society and community is a social group. However, following differences is observed between the two.

a.Community means a group of people living together, having some characteristics in common. Society means the number of people living in a region, by honoring its laws and customs.


b.Society has no definite locality or boundary because it refers to a system of social relationships. Hence it is universal or pervasive. On the other hand a community always associated with a definite locality.

c.Society is abstract whereas community is concrete in nature. Community has its own physical existence but society exists only in the minds of individuals who constitute it.

d.Community refers to a group of people who live in a definite locality with some degree of we-feeling.but society refers to a system or network of social relationships.

e.Society is a broader concept whereas a community is narrower concept. Because there exists more than one community within a society. Hence community is smaller than society.

f.Society is based on both similarities as well as differences. But community is based on only similarities among its members.

g.Society has wider ends but the ends of community are general or common.

h.Size of a community may be small or big like a village community or a nation community but the size of a society is always large.

Culture and Civilization
 

[B][SIZE="5"]Culture and Civilization[/SIZE][/B]


[B]Introduction[/B]

Generally speaking, the following elements of social life are considered to be representative of human culture: "stories, beliefs, media, ideas, works of art, religious practices, fashions, rituals, specialized knowledge, and common sense" (Griswold 2004:xvi). Yet, examples of culture do not, in themselves, present a clear understanding of the concept of culture; culture is more than the object or behavior.


[B]Man is called as a culture bearing animal. [/B]
Hence understanding of human society requires the understanding of culture.
Because each and every society possesses culture and humanness only develops in a cultural framework.
Sociologists have developed the two concepts i.e. culture and society in order to account for and explain the regularities in human action and the essence of social life.
Besides the understanding of the meaning of culture is very vital to the understanding of the nature of society.
However, the term culture has for the first time coined in the eighteenth century.
Famous English anthropologist use the term for the first time in anthropology.
But the sociological meaning of the word culture sharply differs from the ordinary, common or literary meaning. Ordinarily the term culture refers to those particular traits and behavior systems that are regarded as refinements such as music, poetry, art, painting etc.
It refers to special qualities like this and persons who has acquired these qualities is considered as cultured and persons who has not acquired is called ‘uncultured’ But this is a very narrow view of culture and sociologist and anthropologist do not understand culture in this way.
But in a strict sociological sense culture refers to the totality of all those what is learned by individuals as members of society. Sociologically culture refers to acquired behavior which are shared by and transmitted among the members of society.

Culture is a way of life, a mode of thinking, acting and feeling. It is a heritage into which a child is born. Culture is manmade. Culture passes from one generation to another. It can be used both for educated and illiterate because they may have their own culture.

Culture also refers to a set of rules and procedures along with a supporting set of ideas and values.

Culture refers to the distinctive way of life of a group of people. And acquisition of a particular way of life is what is known as culture.
Thus culture is a learned behavior, it .s a social heritage, it is super organic and it is a decision for living. These are four different dimensions of culture.

Hence culture is a complex phenomenon. And to understand this complex phenomena more exactly and more accurately we must have to analyze some of it’s definitions given by different scholars.

[B][SIZE="3"]Definitions:[/SIZE][/B]

(1)According to E.B. Tylor, “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society”.

(2)According to H.T. Mazumdar, “Culture is the sum total of human achievements material as well as non-material, capable of transmission, sociologically i.e. by tradition-and communication, vertically as well as horizontally.”

(3)According to Maclver, “Culture is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and our thinking, intercourse, in our literature, in religion, in recreation and enjoyment.”

(4)According to S. Koening, “Culture is the sum total of man’s efforts to adjust himself to his environment and to improve his modes of living.”
Thus we conclude that culture is manmade. It is an organised system of norms and values hold by people of a society.

Culture is everything which is socially learned and shared by the members of a society.

Individual receives culture as a part of a social heritage and in turn reshape the culture and introduce changes which then become part of the heritage of succeeding generations. It is a response to human needs and is an instrumental reality and an apparatus for the satisfaction of the biologically derived needs.


[B][SIZE="3"]Characteristics of Culture:[/SIZE][/B]

[B](1) Culture is social:[/B]
Culture does not exist in isolation. It is a product of society. It develops through social interaction. No man can acquire culture without association with others. Man becomes a man only among men.

[B](2) Culture is shared:[/B]
Culture is not something that an individual alone can possess. Culture in sociological sense is shared. For example, customs, traditions, beliefs, ideas, values, morale etc. are all shared by people of a group or society.

[B](3) Culture is learnt:[/B]
Culture is not inborn. It is learnt. Culture is often called "learned ways of behaviour". Unlearned behaviour is not culture. But shaking hands, saying thanks' or 'namaskar', dressing etc. are cultural behaviour.

[B](4) Culture is transmissive:[/B]
Culture is transmissive as it is transmitted from one generation to another. Language is the main vehicle of culture. Language in different form makes it possible for the present generation to understand the achievement of earlier generations. Transmission of culture may take place by imitation as well as by instruction.

[B](5) Culture is continuous and cumulative:[/B]
Culture exists as a continuous process. In its historical growth it tends to become cumulative. Sociologist Linton called culture 'the social heritage' of man. It becomes difficult for us to imagine what society would be like without culture.

[B](6) Culture varies from society to society:[/B]
Every society has a culture of its own. It differs from society to society. Culture of every society is unique to itself. Cultures are not uniform. Cultural elements like customs, traditions, morale, values, beliefs are not uniform everywhere. Culture varies from time to time also.

[B](7) Culture is dynamic:[/B]
No culture ever remains constant or changeless. It is subject to slow but constant change. Culture is responsive to the changing conditions of the physical world. Hence culture is dynamic.

[B](8) Culture is gratifying:[/B]
Culture provides proper opportunities for the satisfaction of our needs and desires. Our needs both biological and social are fulfilled in the cultural ways. Culture determines and guides various activities of man. Thus, culture is defined as the process through which human beings satisfy their wants.

[B](9) Culture is the total social heritage:[/B]
We know culture is a social product. It is linked with the past. Through transmission past continues to live in culture. It is shared by all.

[B]Conclusion:[/B]
From the above discussion we are clear that each and every society has a culture of its own. Culture is not only diverse but also unequal, but is found in societies throughout the world.






[B][SIZE="3"]Elements of Culture:[/SIZE][/B]

Culture also includes norms, values, beliefs, or expressive symbols. Roughly, norms are the way people behave in a given society, values are what they hold dear, beliefs are how they think the universe operates, and expressive symbols are representations, often representations of social norms, values, and beliefs themselves. (Griswold 2004:3)

To summarize, culture encompasses objects and symbols, the meaning given to those objects and symbols, and the norms, values, and beliefs that pervade social life.



[B][SIZE="3"]Following are some of the important functions of culture:[/SIZE][/B]

[B](1) Culture distinguishes man from animal.[/B] It is the culture that makes the human animal a man. It regulates his conduct and prepares him for a group life. Without culture he would have been forced to find his own way which would have meant a loss of energy.

[B]1. Culture is the Treasury of Knowledge[/B]
Culture provides knowledge, which is essential for the physical and intellectual existence of man. Birds and animals behave instinctively with environment. But man has greater intelligence and learning capacity. With the help of these, he has been able to adapt himself with environment or modify it to suit his convenience. Culture has made such an adaptation and modification possible and easier by providing man the necessary skills and knowledge. Culture preserves knowledge and helps its transmission from generation to generation through its means that is language helps not only the transmission of knowledge but also its preservation, accumulation and diffusion. On the contrary, animals do not have this advantage. Because culture does not exist at such human level.


[B]1.Culture Defines Situations:[/B]
Each culture has many subtle cues which define each situation. It reveals whether one should prepare to fight, run, laugh or make love. For example, suppose someone approaches you with right hand outstretched at waist level. What does this mean? That he wishes to shake hands in friendly greeting is perfectly obvious – obvious, that is to anyone familiar with our culture.
But in another place or time the outstretched hand might mean hostility or warning. One does not know what to do in a situation until he has defined the situation. Each society has its insults and fighting words. The cues (hints) which define situations appear in infinite variety. A person who moves from one society into another will spend many years misreading the cues. For example, laughing at the wrong places.

[B]4. Culture Decides Our Career[/B]
Whether we should become a politician or a social worker, a doctor, an engineer, a soldier, a farmer, a professor, an industrialist; a religious leader and so on is decided by our culture. What career we are likely to pursue is largely decided by our culture. Culture sets limitations on our choice to select different careers. Individuals may develop, modify or oppose the trends of their culture but they always live within its framework. Only a few can find outlet on the culture.

[B]2. Culture defines Attitudes, Values and Goals:[/B]
Each person learns in his culture what is good, true, and beautiful. Attitudes, values and goals are defined by the culture. While the individual normally learns them as unconsciously as he learns the language. Attitude are tendencies to feel and act in certain ways. Values are measures of goodness or desirability, for example, we value private property, (representative) Government and many other things and experience.
Goals are those attainments which our values define as worthy, (e.g.) winning the race, gaining the affections of a particular girl, or becoming president of the firm. By approving certain goals and ridiculing others, the culture channels individual ambitions. In these ways culture determines the goals of life.

[B]3. Culture defines Myths, Legends, and the Supernatural:[/B]
Myths and legends are important part of every culture. They may inspire, reinforce effort and sacrifice and bring comfort in bereavement. Whether they are true is sociologically unimportant. Ghosts are real to people who believe in them and who act upon this belief. We cannot understand the behaviour of any group without knowing something of the myths, legends, and supernatural beliefs they hold. Myths and legends are powerful forces in a group’s behaviour.
Culture also provides the individual with a ready-made view of the universe. The nature of divine power and the important moral issues are defined by the culture. The individual does not have to select, but is trained in a Christian, Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim or some other religious tradition. This tradition gives answers for the major (things imponderable) of life, and fortuities the individual to meet life’s crises.

[B]4. Culture provides Behaviour Patterns:[/B]
The individual need not go through painful trial and error learning to know what foods can be eaten (without poisoning himself), or how to live among people without fear. He finds a ready-made set of patterns awaiting him which he needs only to learn and follow. The culture maps out the path to matrimony. The individual does not have to wonder how one secures a mate; he knows the procedure defined by his culture.
If men use culture to advance their purposes, it seems clear also that a culture imposes limits on human and activities. The need for order calls forth another function of culture that of so directing behaviour that disorderly behaviour is restricted and orderly behaviour is promoted. A society without rules or norms to define right and wrong behaviour would be very much like a heavily travelled street without traffic signs or any understood rules for meeting and passing vehicles. Chaos would be the result in either case.

[B](5) Culture shapes personality.[/B] No child can develop human qualities in the absence of cultural environment. Culture prepares man for group life. It is culture that provides opportunities for the development of personality and sets limits on its growth.



[B][SIZE="3"]Classifications of culture:[/SIZE][/B]

[B]Material and Non-Material:[/B]
Famous Sociologist W.F. Ogburn divide culture into two types such as material and non-material culture.

[B]Material Culture:[/B]
Material culture consists of products of human activity which is concrete, tangible and observable.
These objects are manmade and called as ‘artifacts’.
It refers to books, chairs, tables, furniture, tools, telephone.
These material culture are external and utilitarian. Material culture is invented for human convenience.
They contribute to the progress of society. It changes faster.

[B]Non-material Culture:[/B]
Non-material culture consists of intangible and abstract things like customs, values, good will habits, beliefs, language etc. Non-material culture is something internal and they do not have physical existence. Non-material culture changes very slowly. It is created taking the psychological basis of man and reflects the inward nature of man. Non-material culture has two aspects such as cognitive and normative. Cognitive aspect deals with knowledge whereas normative aspects consist of norms, rules and values. We can’t see it and touch it.

[B][SIZE="3"]Cultural Lag:[/SIZE][/B]

The Concept of cultural lag was first used by W.F. Ogburn in his famous book “Social Change”. Of course ogburn was the first sociologist to use and discuss the idea of cultural lag and formulate a definite theory. But in the writings of other famous sociologists such as W.G. summer, Herbert Spencer and Muller the existence of a cultural lag is implied.

However, it was ogburn who divides culture into two types such as material and non-material culture. By material culture he mean those things which are tangible, concrete and observable such as table, chair, utensils etc. But non-material culture refers to those things which are intangible and abstract such as good will, customs, traditions, values etc. But Ogburn opines that changes first comes into material aspects of culture and when changes occur in material aspects of culture those in turn stimulate changes in non-material aspects of culture.

But Ogburn opines that the non material aspects of culture is often slow to respond to the changes and invention made in material culture. When non-material culture fails to adjust itself to the changes in material culture it falls or lags-behind the material culture and as a result a lag or gap between the two is created. And Ogburn call this lag or gap between two inter-related parts of culture i.e. Material and non-material as cultural lag.
Defining cultural lag obgurn says, “The strain that exists between two correlated parts of culture that change at unequal rates of speed may be interpreted as a lag in the part that is changing at the lowest rate for the one lags behind the other”. Ogburn opines if society is to maintain equilibrium both the parts of culture should be properly adjusted. To remove this gap between two parts of

culture man should adopt his ways of thinking and behaving to the changes in technology. Explaining the cause of cultural lag he says that the various elements of culture posses varying degrees of changeability. It may also due to man’s psychological dogmatism. When social institutions fails to adopt to the changes in material culture it leads to cultural lag.

Obgurh cited a number of examples to explain the concept of cultural lag. He opines that people have changed their habitations and life style but not the life they lead within them. The number of police force in a country remains constant whereas population of the country increasing rapidly. As a result police force lags behind the population growth and cultural lag appears.


[B][SIZE="3"]Subcultures & Countercultures[/SIZE][/B]

[B]A subculture is a culture shared and actively participated in by a minority of people within a broader culture.[/B] A culture often contains numerous subcultures.

Subcultures incorporate large parts of the broader cultures of which they are part, but in specifics they may differ radically. Some subcultures achieve such a status that they acquire a name of their own. For example in

Pakistani society there are various sub cultures like Punjabi.Sindhi,Balochi and Pakhtoon.Then further divided like in Punjab Lahori,Saraiki,Potohari etc.

[B]A counterculture is a subculture with the addition that some of its beliefs, values, or norms challenge those of the main culture[/B] of which it is part. Examples of countercultures in the U.S. could include: the hippie movement of the 1960s, the green movement, and feminist groups.


[B][SIZE="5"]civilization
[/SIZE][/B]

[B]Defining civilization MacIver and Page (1962) said, ‘by civilization we mean the whole mechanism and organization which man has designed in his endeavour to control the conditions of life’.[/B]

Similarly, S.M. Fairchild (1908) argued that it is the higher stage of cultural development characterized by intellectual, aesthetic, technological and spiritual attainment. On the basis of this meaning, he made reference of ‘civilized peoples’ in contrast to ‘uncivilized or non-civilized peoples’.

[SIZE="3"][B]Distinction between culture and civilization:[/B][/SIZE]

1. Culture is an end (values and goals) in itself while civilization is a means (tools and techniques) to an end. Cultural facts like belief, art and literature—prose, poetry or novel, etc., gives direct satisfaction to the reader while equipment’s of civilization such as cars, computers, refrigerators, etc., do not give direct satisfaction, until and unless they do not satisfy our wants. Thus, civilization is utilitarian. It just helps in achieving the end.

2. Culture has no value in itself but it is a measurement by which we can value other articles of civilization. We cannot determine the value of culture, i.e., beliefs, norms, ideas, etc., but the value of anything can be determined by its measurement standard. Culture is a measuring rod or weighing balance.

3. Civilization is always advancing but not culture. Cultural facts like dramatic plays or poems may not be necessarily better today than the plays or poems of Shakespeare?

4. Civilization is easily passed without much effort to the next generation but not culture. Cultural facts, e.g., any art or a piece of literature, cannot be learned without some intelligence. It requires a few pains to understand it. Contrary to it, the equipment’s of civilization (building, TV, etc.) can easily be inherited without much or any use of energy and intelligence.

5. Civilization may be borrowed without making any change but not culture. Borrowing any cultural fact like any political, economic or social belief requires some necessary alteration to adjust in the new cultural environment while this is not necessary to make any material change in the civilizational equipment’s such as TV, computer, etc.

6. Culture relates to the inner qualities of society like religion, customs, conventions, etc., while civilization relates to the outer form of society such as TV, radio, fans, etc.

7. Culture is more stable than civilization—cultural change takes place in years or in centuries but civilization changes very rapidly.

8. Variability of cultures may not be accompanied by variability of civilization at different places. Civilization may be similar in variable cultural areas. For instance, there is a great difference between American and Indian cultures but there are many similarities in their civilizational equipment’s.

9. Culture is a social fact, i.e., creation of the whole society while civilization, i.e., the invention of any equipment may be by a single individual. Any ordinary person can affect any change in the civilizational equipment but for any modification or alteration in any cultural fact requires the power and imagination of whole society.

There are scholars who have designated culture and civilization as the two sides of the same coin. William F. Ogburn (1964), in his theory of social change, pointed out two aspects of culture, viz., material and non-material. For him, material aspect represents civilization and the non-material aspect is the culture proper. Gillin and Gillin (1948) designated the material or tangible part of culture as civilization or culture equipment which man in his endeavor has modified from environment.

Marriage Family and Kinship
 

[B][SIZE="5"]Marriage Family and Kinship[/SIZE][/B]


[B][SIZE="3"]Marriage Types and Norms[/SIZE][/B]

Marriage is one of the universal social institutions established to control and regulate the life of mankind.

It is closely associated with the institution of family
Infact both the institutions are complementary to each other.
It is an institution with different implications in different cultures.

Its purposes, functions and forms may differ from society to society but it is present everywhere as an institution.

Robert Lowie describes marriage as a relatively permanent bond between permissible mates.

[B]For Horton and Hunt marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or more persons establish a family.[/B]

[B][SIZE="3"]Types of marriages[/SIZE][/B]

[B]Polygyny:[/B]

It is a form of marriage in which one man marries more than one woman at a given time. It is of two types --- Sororal polygyny and non sororal polygyny

[B]Polyandry:[/B]

It is the marriage of one woman with more than one man.
It is less common than polygyny. It is of two types---- Fraternal Polyandry and non fraternal polyandry.

[B]Monogamy:[/B]
It is a form of marriage in which one man marries one woman .It is the most common and acceptable form of marriage.

[B]Serial monogamy:[/B]
In many societies individuals are permitted to marry again often on the death of the first spouse or after divorce but they cannot have more than one spouse at one and the same time.

Straight monogamy:
In this remarriage is not allowed.

[B]Endogamy:[/B]

It is a rule of marriage in which the life-partners are to be selected within the group.
It is marriage within the group and the group may be caste, class, tribe, race, village, religious group etc.
We have caste endogamy, class endogamy, sub caste endogamy, race endogamy and tribal endogamy etc.In caste endogamy marriage has to take place within the caste. Brahmin has to marry a Brahmin. In sub caste endogamy it is limited to the sub caste groups.

[B]Exogamy:[/B]

It is a rule of marriage in which an individual has to marry outside his own group. It prohibits marrying within the group.
The so-called blood relatives shall neither have marital connections nor sexual contacts among themselves.

[B]Muslim Marriage [/B]
In the Muslim community marriage is universal for it discourages celibacy.
Muslims call their marriage Nikah.
Marriage is regarded not as a religious sacrament but as a secular bond.

The bridegroom makes a proposal to the bride just before the wedding ceremony in the presence of two witnesses and a maulavi or kazi.
The proposal is called ijab and its acceptance is called qubul.

It is necessary that both the proposal and its acceptance must take place at the same meeting to make it a sahi Nikah

The run-away marriages called kifa when the girls run away with boys and marry them on their own choice are not recognized.

Marrying idolaters and slaves is also not approved.

There is also provision of preferential system in mate selection.

The parallel cousins and cross cousins are allowed to get married.

Marriage that is held contrary to the Islamic rules is called batil or invalid marriage.

[B]Meher or dower is a practice associated with Muslim marriage.[/B]

It is a sum of money or other property which a wife is entitled to get from her husband in consideration of the marriage.

Iddat is the period of seclusion for three menstrual periods for a woman after the death /divorce by her husband to ascertain whether she is pregnant or not.
Only after this period she can remarry.

[B]Muslim marriage can be dissolved in the following ways: [/B]

Divorce as per the Muslim law but without the intervention of the court:
They are of two types-Kula where divorce is initiated at the instance of the wife and Mubarat where initiative may come either from the wife or from the husband.

Talaq represents one of the ways according to which a Muslim husband can give divorce to his wife as per the Muslim law by repeating the dismissal formula thrice. The talaq may be affected either orally by making some pronouncements or in writing by presenting talaqnama.

[B]Divorce as recognized by Shariah Act provides for three forms of divorce:[/B]Illa,Zihar and Lian.There is also provision of divorce as per the Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act 1939.
__________________




[B][SIZE="5"]Family[/SIZE][/B]

The family is a group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood or adoption constituting a single household interacting with each other in their respective social role of husband and wife, mother and father, brother and sister creating a common culture.

The family as a social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction.

It includes adults of both sexes at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship and one or more children own or adopted of the sexually co-habiting adults.

Nimkoff says that family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife with or without child or of a man or woman alone with children.

Malinowski opined that the family is the institution within which the cultural traditions of a society is handed over to a newer generation.
This indispensable function could not be filled unless the relations to parents and children were relations reciprocally of authority and respect.

[B]According to Talcott Parsons families are factories which produce human personalities. [/B]

The family forms the basic unit of social organization and it is difficult to imagine how human society could function without it.
The family has been seen as a universal social institution an inevitable part of human society.


[B][SIZE="3"]Main characteristics of family[/SIZE][/B]


[B]Universality: [/B]
There is no human society in which some form of the family does not appear.Malinowski writes the typical family a group consisting of mother, father and their progeny is found in all communities,savage,barbarians and civilized. The irresistible sex need, the urge for reproduction and the common economic needs have contributed to this universality


[B]Emotional basis: [/B]

The family is grounded in emotions and sentiments. It is based on our impulses of mating, procreation, maternal devotion, fraternal love and parental care. It is built upon sentiments of love, affection, sympathy, cooperation and friendship.

[B]Limited size:[/B]
The family is smaller in size. As a primary group its size is necessarily limited. It is a smallest social unit.

[B]Formative influence: [/B]

The family welds an environment which surrounds trains and educates the child.
It shapes the personality and moulds the character of its members. It emotionally conditions the child.

[B]Nuclear position in the social structure: [/B]

The family is the nucleus of all other social organizations.
The whole social structure is built of family units.

[B]Responsibility of the members: [/B]
The members of the family has certain responsibilities, duties and obligations.Maclver points out that in times of crisis men may work and fight and die for their country but they toil for their families all their lives.

[B]Social regulation:[/B]

The family is guarded both by social taboos and by legal regulations. The society takes precaution to safeguard this organization from any possible breakdown.

[B]Types and forms of the family[/B]

On the basis of marriage, family has been classified into three major types:

• Polygamous or polygynous family

• Polyandrous family On the basis of the nature of residence family can be classified into three main forms.

• Family of matrilocal residence

• Family of patrilocal residence

• Family of changing residence

On the basis of ancestry or descent family can be classified into two main types

• Matrilineal family

• Patrilineal family

On the basis of size or structure and the depth of generations family can be classified into two main types.

• Nuclear or the single unit family

• Joint family

On the basis of the nature of relations among the family members the family can be classified into two main types.

• The conjugal family which consists of adult members among there exists sex relationship.

• Consanguine family which consists of members among whom there exists blood relationship- brother and sister, father and son etc
__________________





[B][SIZE="5"]Kinship [/SIZE][/B]

Kinship is the relation by the bond of blood, marriage and includes kindered ones. It represents one of the basic social institutions. Kinship is universal and in most societies plays a significant role in the socialization of individuals and the maintenance of group solidarity. It is very important in primitive societies and extends its influence on almost all their activities.A.R Radcliffe Brown defines kinship as a system of dynamic relations between person and person in a community, the behavior of any two persons in any of these relations being regulated in some way and to a greater or less extent by social usage.

[B]Affinal and Consanguineous kinship[/B]

Relation by the bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship such as parents and their children and between children of same parents. Thus son, daughter, brother, sister, paternal uncle etc are consanguineous kin. Each of these is related through blood.

Kinship due to marriage is affinal kinship. New relations are created when marriage takes place. Not only man establishes relationship with the girl and the members of her but also family members of both the man and the woman get bound among themselves. Kinship includes Agnates (sapindas, sagotras); cognates (from mother's side) and bandhus (atamabandhus, pitrubandhus, and matrubandhus).

[B]Descent[/B]

A descent group is any social group in which membership depends on common descent from a real or mythical ancestor. Thus a lineage is a unilineal descent group in which membership may rest either on matrilineal descent (patrilineage) or on matrilineal descent (matrilineage). In a cognatic descent, all descendants of an ancestor\ancestress enjoy membership of a common descent group by virtue of any combination of male or female linkages. However, cognatic descent is sometimes used synonymously with either 'bilateral' or 'consanguine descent.

A clan is a unilineal descent groups the members of which may claim either partilineal (Patriclan) or matrilineal descent (Matriclan) from a founder, but do not know the genealogical ties with the ancestor\ancestress. A phratry is a grouping of clans which are related by traditions of common descent. Mythical ancestors are thus common in clans and phratries. Totemic clans, in which membership is periodically reinforced by common rituals such as sacred meals, have been of special interest to social anthropologists and sociologists of religion. Where the descent groups of a society are organized into two main divisions, these are known as moieties (halves). The analysis of descent groups is crucial for any anthropological study of pre-industrial society, but in most Western industrial societies the principle of descent is not prominent and descent groups are uncommon.


[B]Primary, secondary and tertiary kins[/B]

[B]Primary kins:[/B]

Every individual who belong to a nuclear family finds his primary kins within the family. There are 8 primary kins- husband-wife, father-son, mother-son, father-daughter, mother-daughter, younger brother-elder brother, younger sister-elder sister and brother-sister.

[B]Secondary kins:[/B]

Outside the nuclear family the individual can have 33 types of secondary relatives. For example mother's brother, brother's wife, sister's husband, father's brother.

[B]Tertiary kins: [/B]

Tertiary kins refer to the secondary kins of our primary kins.For example wife's brother's son, sister's husband's brother and so on. There are 151 types of tertiary kins.

[B]Kinship Usages:[/B]

Kinship usages or the rules of kinship are significant in understanding kinship system. They serve two main purposes:

• They create groups or special groupings or kin. For example- family extended family, clan etc.

• Kinship rules govern the role of relationships among the kins.

Kinship usage provides guidelines for interaction among persons in these social groupings. It defines proper and acceptable role relationships. Thus it acts as a regulator of social life. Some of these relationships are: avoidance, teknonymy, avunculate, amitate, couvades and joking relationship.

Ethnocentrism
 

[B][SIZE="5"]Ethnocentrism[/SIZE][/B]


[B]The term ethnocentrism then refers to the tendency for each society to place its own culture patterns at the centre of things. [/B]

[B]Ethnocentrism is the practice of comparing other cultural practices with those of one's own and automatically finding those other cultural practices to be inferior. [/B]

It makes our culture into a yardstick with which to measure all other cultures as good or bad, high or low, right or queer in proportion as they resemble ours.

[B]Everyone learns ethnocentrism while growing up. [/B]
The possessiveness of the small child quickly translates "into my toys are better than your toys"

History for example, is often taught to glorify the achievements of one's own nation, and religious, civic and other groups disparage their competitors openly.

Ethnocentrism is a universal human reaction found in all known societies, in all groups and in practically all individuals.


[B]The functions of ethnocentrism in maintaining order are more apparent than those which promote social change. [/B]



[B][SIZE="3"]Positive Effects of Ethnocentrism[/SIZE][/B]

1.It encourages social solidarity in groups and in society by which the forces of co-operation become stronger.

2.It provides protection to group members by, creating sense of belonging among them, specially those Members who are weak, poor,hopeless.

3.It promotes nationalism and patriotism among the members of society.

4.Caste, Biradri and consanguine groups develop by it in which marriage and other social relations are facilitated.


[B][SIZE="3"]Negative Effects of Ethnocentrism[/SIZE][/B]

1.It creates tight boundaries among various social groups.

2.The inter-group relations are hampered due to prejudice against another.

3.The process of social relations among various groups gets slower.

4.The prejudice created by it creates conflict and tension among many groups.

5.The social forces of cooperation face problems in their operation.

6.It limits an individual in a small social group to which he belongs and is not influenced by the general social changes happening around him in the society.

7.He remains backward in a sense by this way and adopts little changes.

8.The national development in general is slowed down in such cultures when ethnocentrism is emphasized in books, newspapers,radio and television.

Positively, ethnocentrism promotes continuance of the status quo negatively, it discourages change.


[B]CONCLUSION:[/B]

Although we typically think of ethnocentrism as something that is very bad, it can at least arguably have some good consequences for group life.
Ethnocentrism is generally seen as a bad thing because it leads to prejudice and hatred of other groups.
Ethnocentrism is the belief that our own ethnic group is different from, and in some way superior to, other ethnic groups.
This can lead us to actively despise other groups and, at times, to try to harm them.
Thus, we can say that ethnocentrism led to such atrocities as the Holocaust or, on a lower level, to things like apartheid in South Africa or slavery in the United States.
However, we can at least argue that ethnocentrism can have a good side.
In general, it can be hard for modern societies to stick together and for people in such societies to feel much of a connection with one another.
When this happens, there can be problems such as crime or civil discord.
Ethnocentrism can help to prevent this.
If people have the attitude that their group is better than others, it can give them a sense of identity that binds them to one another.
In that way, ethnocentrism can lead to greater cohesion within a group.

Social and Cultural Change
 

[B][SIZE="5"]Social and Cultural Change[/SIZE][/B]


[B][SIZE="3"]Cultural change:[/SIZE][/B]

Cultural change means change occurring in any branch of culture including art, science,technology,philosophy etc as well as changes in the forms and rules of social organization.

First there is cultural change which becomes social change in social life.


[B]There are three important sources of cultural change:[/B]

[B]Invention:[/B]
Inventions produce new objects, ideas, and social patterns.
Invention of ideas, objects and social patterns bring social change.

[B]Discovery[/B]
occurs when people take note of existing elements of the world.
Medical advances, for example, offer a growing understanding of the human body.
Human body has been there but perhaps in the olden times humans did not know much about its functioning and dis-functioning.

[B]Diffusion[/B]
is the transference of cultural traits from place and/or group to another.
Diffusion creates change as products, people, and information spread from one culture to another.
Presently mass media of communication has demolished the physical boundaries for contacting other cultures.
Now perhaps you have to have a control over the “mouse” and reach anywhere in the world, know about its culture, understand it, and if like may borrow its cultural traits.
Inventions, discoveries, and diffusion, all bring change in culture which in turn bring change in the social structure and the relationships of people.



[B][SIZE="3"]SOCIAL CHANGE[/SIZE][/B]


Social change is the deviation from the past in the structure , organization and composition of social systems and
the change in the structure and functions of the society which the social system are a part.

More generally, social change may include changes in nature, social institutions, social behaviours or social relations , values and norms over time.


[B]Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of a society.
[/B]

[B][SIZE="3"]Causes of Social Change:[/SIZE][/B]

1.Technological and Economic Changes: (Agriculture advancement, industrialization)
2.Cultural
3.Religious
4.Economic
5.EDUCATION
6.MASS MEDIA
7.Modernization: standardizing as towards modern tools (Life Style, Technology)

8.Urbanization: Moving population from ruler areas to urban (Cities) areas.

9.Conflict and Competition: War: due to religion, ethnic tensions, competition for resources. Gender and Women’s

10.Political and Legal Power: Elected Official (Government) & Unelected Officials (Corporative Force)

11.Ideology: Religious Belief, Political or Regional Conviction.

12.Diffusion: Spreading the ones cultural to another culture.

13.Acculturation: the process in which a minority is absorbed into the majority and entirely loses its distinctiveness.


[B]Social change means the changes in the social structure and social relationships. [/B]

1.age structure of the population like 43 percent of the population of Pakistan is that of children, about 4 percent is that of old people and the rest may be adults.

2.rural and urban distribution of people.

3.Educational distribution of people is another angle of population structure;

4.there is lot of shifting from rural to urban areas.

5.changing birth rate as an aspect of social change.

6.changes taking place in the structure of families in terms of size, authority structure, age at marriage, number of children per woman.

7.change in the relationships of people. decline in the neighborliness, changes in the employer and employee relationships, change in the men and women relationships (women empowerment), and so on.



[COLOR="Blue"][B][SIZE="3"]Models of Social Change[/SIZE][/B]
[/COLOR]

[SIZE="3"][B]Evolutionary theory[/B][/SIZE]

According to evolutionary theory, society moves in specific directions.
Therefore, early social evolutionists saw society as progressing to higher and higher levels.

As a result, they concluded that their own cultural attitudes and behaviors were more advanced than those of earlier societies.

Auguste Comte subscribed to social evolution. He saw human societies as progressing into using scientific methods.

Emile Durkheim, one of the founders of functionalism, saw societies as moving from simple to complex social structures.

Herbert Spencer compared society to a living organism with interrelated parts moving toward a common end.

[B]Unilinear evolutionary theories[/B], which maintain that all societies pass through the same sequence of stages of evolution to reach the same destiny.


[B]Multilinear evolutionary theory[/B] holds that change can occur in several ways and does not inevitably lead in the same direction.

Multilinear theorists observe that human societies have evolved along differing lines.


[SIZE="3"][B]Functionalist theory[/B][/SIZE]
Functionalist sociologists emphasize what maintains society, not what changes it.

Although functionalists may at first appear to have little to say about social change, sociologist Talcott Parsons holds otherwise.
Parsons (1902–1979), a leading functionalist, saw society in its natural state as being stable and balanced. That is, society naturally moves toward a state of homeostasis.

To Parsons, significant social problems, such as union strikes, represent nothing but temporary rifts in the social order.

According to his equilibrium theory, changes in one aspect of society require adjustments in other aspects.

When these adjustments do not occur, equilibrium disappears, threatening social order.

Parsons' equilibrium theory incorporates the evolutionary concept of continuing progress, but the predominant theme is stability and balance.


Critics argue that functionalists minimize the effects of change because all aspects of society contribute in some way to society's overall health.

They also argue that functionalists ignore the use of force by society's powerful to maintain an illusion of stability and integration.

[SIZE="3"][B]Conflict theory[/B][/SIZE]

Conflict theorists maintain that, because a society's wealthy and powerful ensure the status quo in which social practices and institutions favorable to them continue, change plays a vital role in remedying social inequalities and injustices.


Although Karl Marx accepted the evolutionary argument that societies develop along a specific direction, he did not agree that each successive stage presents an improvement over the previous stage.

Marx noted that history proceeds in stages in which the rich always exploit the poor and weak as a class of people.

Marx's view of social change is proactive; it does not rely on people remaining passive in response to exploitation or other problems in material culture.

Instead, it presents tools for individuals wishing to take control and regain their freedom.

Unlike functionalism and its emphasis on stability, Marx holds that conflict is desirable and needed to initiate social change and rid society of inequality.


[B][SIZE="3"]Social change has following major characteristics.[/SIZE][/B]

[B]1.Change is Social:[/B]
Social change means a change in the system of social relationship. Social relationship is understood in terms of social process, social interactions and social organizations. So in any variation of social process, social interactions and social organizations social change-takes place.

[B]2.Universal:[/B]
Social change is universal. Because it is present in all societies and at all times. No society remains completely static. The rate or the degree of change may vary from society to society from time to time but every society keeps on changing. A changeless society is an unreality.

[B]3.Continuous:[/B]
Social change is a continuous process but not an intermittent process. Because the changes are neither stopped nor the societies are kept in museum to save them from change. It is an on-going process without any break. In the process of change every society grows and decays.

[B]4.Inevitable:[/B]
Change is inevitable. It is the human nature that desires change and also it is his tendency to bring change . Human wants are unlimited which always keep on changing. To satisfy these wants social change has become a necessity not only to him but also to the society.

[B]5.Temporal:[/B]
Social change is temporal. Change in anything or any object or in a situation takes place through time. Time is the most important factor and social change denotes time-sequence. Innovation of new things, modification and renovations of the existing behaviour take time.
So a social change is temporary or permanent on the basis of time. Sometimes some social changes may bring about immediate results while some others may take years to produce results. Similarly, some social changes spread rapidly and also disappear rapidly.

[B]6.Degree or rate of change is not uniform:[/B]
Its degree or rate or what we call the speed is not uniform. It varies from society to society and even in the same society from time to time.
Degree of change is high and low depending upon the nature of society like open and close, rural and urban and traditional,modern etc.
For example, in the rural social structure the rate of change is slower, whereas it is quick in the urban societies.

[B]7.Social Change may be planned or unplanned:[/B]
Social change takes place sometimes with planning and sometimes without planning.
Social change which occurs in the natural course is called the unplanned change.
The unplanned changes are spontaneous, accidental or the product of sudden decision.
Usually the change resulting from natural calamities like flood; drought, famines, volcanic eruption, etc. are the instances of unplanned changes.
It is the inborn tendency of human beings that they desire change.
So sometimes plans, programmes and projects are made effective by them to bring change in the society.
This is called planned change. As it is consciously and deliberately made, there is every possibility to have control on the speed and direction of change. For example, the five years plan made by the government.

[B]8.Some changes matter more than others. [/B]
Some changes (such as clothing fads) have only passing significance, whereas others (like computers) last a long time and may change the entire world.
Information technology may revolutionize the whole world just like the industrial revolution

[B]9.Social change creates chain-reactions:[/B]
Social change produces not a single reaction but chain-reactions as all the parts of the society are inter-related and interdependent. For example, the economic independence of women has brought changes not only in their status but also a series of changes in home, family relationship and marriages etc.

[B]10.Social change is controversial.[/B]
Social change brings both good and bad consequences.
Capitalists welcomed the industrial revolution because new technology increased productivity and increased profits.
However, the workers feared that the machines would make their skills outdated and resisted the push for progress.


[B][SIZE="3"]Determining role of culture effecting social change. Some of the important effects are given below. They are:[/SIZE][/B]

[B](i) Culture gives speed and direction to social change:[/B]
If the culture is too much conservative, then its rate of change becomes too low and vice versa. People whether accept change or not depends upon their attitudes and values which are the products of the culture.

[B](ii) Culture influences the direction and character of technological change:[/B]
It is the culture that decides the purpose to which a technical invention must be put.

[B](iii) Culture shapes economy and is effective towards economic growth:[/B]
Culture not only gives direction to technology but it shapes the economy which is too much effective towards economic growth.

[B](iv) It keeps the social relationship intact:[/B]
It makes people think not of their own but also of the others.
By regulating the behavior of the people and satisfying their primary drives pertaining to hunger, shelter and sex, it has been able to maintain group life.

Social stratification:
 

[SIZE="5"][B]SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:[/B][/SIZE]


Social strata are levels of social statuses.

[B]Members of a society who possess similar amount of wealth, power, and privileges occupy each social stratum.[/B]

Organized systems of such strata are conceptualized as social stratification system.

Social stratification refers to arrangements of any group or society into a hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power, property and social evolution.

Social stratification refers to a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy.


[B]Determinants of social stratification in Pakistan:[/B]

Economic resources
Occupations
Prestige
Caste
Education
Political power… Are the determinants of social divisions


[B]Economic resources:[/B]
The size of landholdings in rural areas belong to upper classes.
While the tenants, blacksmiths, cobblers, barbers belong to the lower class.

[B]Occupation:[/B]
Landowners, industrialists, businessmen, high government officials, corporate officials belong to the upper class.

Servicemen, small businessmen, whose income equals to their expenditures, are the middle class.

Manual workers, carpenters, blacksmiths, washermen all constitute the lower class.

[B]Prestige:[/B]
Respect of an individual in society is related to the level of prestige that he enjoys.
Prestige includes nobility, harmlessness, participating in social welfare projects, helping the needy etc.

[B]Power:[/B]
Power gains one respect. In Pakistan, following characteristics could be important:
Outspoken in public, educated, well off in financial resources, interest in solving people's problems, active, religious oriented etc.

[B]Caste:[/B]
Caste system in Pakistan is an important element in social stratification. Some castes are considered high, some are low.

[B]Education:[/B]
Education like all other societies in the world, defines social status in Pakistan too.
Educated people are better rated and respected socially owing to their occupations, professions and status while illiterate people always belong to lower class.

[B][COLOR="Blue"][SIZE="3"]Generally, Four classes exist in Pakistan.[/SIZE][/COLOR][/B]

[B]High:[/B]
This class divides into two groups: lower‐upper and upper‐upper. The lower‐upper class includes those with “new money,” or money made from investments, business ventures, and so forth. The upper‐upper class includes those aristocratic and “high‐society” families with “old money” who have been rich for generations. These extremely wealthy people live off the income from their inherited riches. The upper‐upper class is more prestigious than the lower‐upper class.

Wherever their money comes from, both segments of the upper class are exceptionally rich. Both groups have more money than they could possibly spend, which leaves them with much leisure time for cultivating a variety of interests. They live in exclusive neighborhoods, gather at expensive social clubs, and send their children to the finest schools. As might be expected, they also exercise a great deal of influence and power both nationally and globally.

[B]Middle: [/B]The middle class are the “sandwich” class. These white collar workers have more money than those below them on the “social ladder,” but less than those above them. They divide into two levels according to wealth, education, and prestige.

The lower middle class is often made up of less educated people with lower incomes, such as managers, small business owners, teachers, and secretaries.

The upper middle class is often made up of highly educated business and professional people with high incomes, such as doctors, lawyers, stockbrokers, and CEOs.

[B]The working class:[/B]

The working class are those minimally educated people who engage in “manual labor” with little or no prestige. Unskilled workers in the class—dishwashers, cashiers, maids, and waitresses—usually are underpaid and have no opportunity for career advancement. They are often called the working poor. Skilled workers in this class—carpenters, plumbers, and electricians—are often called blue collar workers. They may make more money than workers in the middle class—secretaries, teachers, and computer technicians; however, their jobs are usually more physically taxing, and in some cases quite dangerous.

[B]Lower:[/B]
The lower class is typified by poverty, homelessness, and unemployment. People of this class, few of whom have finished high school, suffer from lack of medical care, adequate housing and food, decent clothing, safety, and vocational training. The media often stigmatize the lower class as “the underclass,” inaccurately characterizing poor people as welfare mothers who abuse the system by having more and more babies, welfare fathers who are able to work but do not, drug abusers, criminals, and societal “trash.”


[B][SIZE="3"]SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIAL CLASS[/SIZE][/B]

Social class determines the life chances of an individual:

[B]It implies that the social class determines the fate we can expect in life.[/B]

opportunities and rewards are affected by class position.

Poor nutrition for the mother may affect the health and vigor of the fetus before birth,

[B]Social class influences physical and mental health: [/B]

Differential death rates are cause of unequal access to medical care and nutrition.

Lower class experiences stress from unemployment, dirty and dangerous work, the threat of eviction, expenses of life, and so on.

[B]Social class and family life:[/B]
Social class influences the mate selection, age at marriage, number of children, child rearing patterns,
women empowerment, educational aspirations and achievements.

Lower class children supposed to be obedient at home and at work, whereas middle class children are trained to be creative, independent, and tolerant.

[B]The vision of children about future varies by social class.[/B]

[B]Social class and education/employment opportunities: [/B]

[B]Type of education. [/B]Public schools are for the poor and private schools are for the rich.

With better qualifications from prestigious institutions children from affluent families have better employment opportunities.

[B]Social class and lifestyles:[/B]

Social class determines the lifestyle of the people.
Individual identities are structured to a greater extent around lifestyle choices – how to dress, what to eat, how to care one’s body, and where to relax.

[B]cultural tastes and leisure pursuits. [/B]

[B]distinctive lifestyle and consumption patterns. [/B]

[B]Social stratification is universal but variable. [/B]Social stratification is found everywhere. At the same time, what is unequal and how unequal people are vary from one society to another

[B]Social stratification persists over generations. [/B]In all societies parents pass their social position along to their children, so that patterns of inequality stay much the same from generation to generation. Some individual experience change in their position in the social hierarchy. For most people, social standing remains much the same over a lifetime.

People with the greatest social privileges express the strongest support for their society’s social stratification, while those with less social resources are more likely to seek change.


[SIZE="3"][B]THEORIES OF CLASS AND STRATIFICATION [/B][/SIZE][COLOR="Blue"][/COLOR]

The ideas developed by Karl Marx and Max Weber forms the basis of most sociological analysis of class and stratification.

[B]Stratification and Conflict[/B]

Social conflict perspective argues that, rather than benefiting society as a whole, social stratification benefits some people at the expense of others. This analysis draws heavily on the ideas of Karl Marx, with contributions from Max Weber.

[SIZE="3"][B]Karl Marx: Class and Conflict[/B][/SIZE]

Marx (1818-1883) argued that the distinctions people often make between themselves – such as clothing, speech, education, or relative slavery – are superficial matters that camouflage the only real significant dividing line:

people either (the bourgeoisie) own the means of production or they (the proletariat) work for those who do.

This is the only distinction that counts, for these two classes make up modern society.

Means of production refer to the sources by which people gain their livelihood.

Hence people’s relationship to means of production determines their social class.

Before the rise of modern industry,there were two main classes those who owned the land and those actively engaged in producing from it (serfs, slaves and free peasantry).

In modern industrial societies, factories, offices, machinery and the wealth or capital needed to buy them have become more important.

The two main classes are those who own these new means of production –

the industrialists or capitalists called as Bourgeoisie – and those who earn their living by selling their labor to them – the property-less working class called as proletariat.

[B]According to Marx in Das Kapital three great classes exist in modern societies:[/B]

The owners of mere labor power, the owners of capital, and the landlords, whose respective sources of income are wages, profit, and ground-rent.

The relationship between classes is an exploitative one.

In feudal societies, exploitation often took the form of the direct transfer of produce from the peasantry to the aristocracy.

Serfs were compelled to give a certain proportion of their production to their aristocratic masters.

In modern industrial societies, the source of exploitation is less obvious, and Marx devoted much attention to trying to clarify its nature.

In the course of the working day workers produce much more than is actually needed by employers to repay the cost of hiring them.

[B][Value of product of labor – value of labor = the surplus value] This surplus value is the source of profit, which capitalists are able to put to their own use. [/B]

The labor becomes a commodity. Wealth is produced on a scale far beyond anything seen before, but workers have little access to the wealth their labor creates.

[B]The capitalist becomes richer while the proletariat gets poorer. [/B]

Marx used the term pauperization to describe the process by which the working class grows increasingly impoverished in relation to the capitalist class.

Even if the workers become more affluent in absolute terms, the gap separating them from the capitalist class continues to stretch ever wider.

These inequalities between the capitalist and working class were not strictly economic in nature.

Work itself becomes dull and oppressive in the modern factories resulting in dehumanizing the work environment.

[B]The capitalist class draws its strength from more than the operation of the economy. [/B]

Through the family, opportunity and wealth are passed down from generation to generation.

Moreover, the legal system defends this practice through the law of inheritance.

Similarly the exclusive schools bring children of the elite together, encouraging informal social ties that will benefit them throughout their lives.

In this way capitalist society reproduces the class structure in each new generation.

Marx saw great disparities in wealth and power arising from this productive system, which made class conflict inevitable.

Over time, Marx believed, oppression and misery would drive the working majority (labor class) to organize, challenge the system, and ultimately overthrow the capitalist system.

Such a class struggle has been part of the history of societies.

According to Marx; through this revolution the capitalist system is replaced by socialist system resulting in a classless society.

In such a society, humans will be able to live in a world where they are not prevented from realizing their full potential by the constraints of class societies.

In a classless society the principle of “from each according to his ability, to each according to his need” comes into operation.

[B]Critical evaluation:[/B]

How do we motivate people to do their job efficiently? Motivating people to perform various social roles requires some system of unequal rewards.

Severing rewards from performance generates low productivity.

In capitalist societies the wages of workers have increased.

Here people talk of The Affluent Worker.

Between the two classes a third class of petite bourgeoisie – small owners, managers, supervisors, and autonomous workers has emerged.

Such a situation is not going to let the capitalist system to collapse.



[B][SIZE="3"]Max Weber (1864-1920)[/SIZE][/B] built his approach to stratification on the analysis developed by Marx, but he modified and elaborated it.
Like Marx, Weber regarded society as characterized by conflicts over power and resources.
Yet where Marx saw polarized class relations and economic issues at the heart of all conflict, [B]Weber developed a multidimensional view of society.[/B]

[B]Max Weber gave a model of three elements for social stratification Class, Status:[/B]

1.Economic Resources
2.Prestige
3.Political Power

Social stratification is not simply a matter of class or economic resources , according to Weber, but is also shaped by two other aspects: status and power.

These three overlapping elements of stratification produce an enormous number of possible positions (inequality) within society, rather than the rigid bipolar model, which Marx proposed.

[B][COLOR="Blue"]Economic Differences[/COLOR][/B]
[B]According to Weber class divisions derive not only from control or lack of control of the means of production, but from economic differences, which have nothing directly to do with property.[/B] Such resources include especially the skills and credentials, or qualifications, which affect the types of job people, are able to obtain.

[B]Weber believed that an individual’s market position strongly influences his or her ‘life chances’. [/B]

The market positions (capacities) people have in terms of the skills they bring to the labor market as employees, explains the rewards they will receive.

Where people have good market capacity they will have very good life chances: these chances include income, perks, and pensions
together with less tangible benefits such as security of job, pleasant working environment and considerable autonomy at work.

Those in managerial or professional occupations earn more, and have more favorable conditions of work, for example, than people in blue-collar jobs.

[B]The qualifications they possess, such as degrees, diplomas and the skills they have acquired, make them more ‘marketable’ than others without such qualifications. [/B]

[B]Managers of corporations control the means of production although they do not own them. [/B]

If managers can control property for their own benefit – awarding themselves huge bonuses and magnificent perks.
it makes no practical difference that they do not own the property that they so generously use for their own benefit.


[COLOR="Blue"][B]Prestige(social honor):[/B][/COLOR] in Weber’s theory refers to differences between social groups in the social honor or prestige they are accorded by others. Presently status is being expressed through people’s styles of life. Markers and symbols of status—such as housing, dress, manner of speech, occupation – all help to shape an individual’s social standing in the eyes of others. People sharing the same status form a community in which there is a sense of shared identity.

While Marx believed that status distinctions are the result of class divisions in society, Weber argued that status often varies independently of class divisions. Possession of wealth normally tends to confer high status, but there are many exceptions. Olympic gold medalists, for example, may not own property, yet they may have very high prestige. Property and prestige is not one way street: although property can bring prestige, prestige can also bring property.

[COLOR="Blue"][B]Power, the third element of social class,[/B][/COLOR] is the ability to control others, even against their wishes. Weber agreed with Marx that property is a major source of power, but he added that it is not the only source.

With time, industrial societies witness the growth of the bureaucratic state. This expansion of government and other types of formal organizations means that power gains importance in the stratification system.


be groups possessing effective political power without economic leverage (military, trade union). Therefore inequality could there due to political power.

[B]In Weberian perspective society can be divided in 2+ classes as below:[/B]

[B]UPPER CLASS[/B]
Upper class
Upper middle class

[B]MIDDLE CLASS[/B]
Middle -middle class
Lower middle class

[B]WORKING CLASS[/B]
Skilled manual workers
Semi-skilled workers.
Unskilled manual workers.

[B]THE POOR[/B]

[B]Weber’s theory comes closer to explaining the dynamics of stratification in modern societies.[/B]

Weber anticipated the proliferation of classes, with a new class of white-collar employees, administrators, technicians and civil servants, who are growing in number and importance.

Property relations are important (Marx) but the market position and marketability is decisive in determining an individual’s class position.

[B]Weber rejected Marx’s view that the workers (or employees) have nothing but their labor to sell to the highest bidder. The reality is that:[/B]

•Workers possess skills.

•The distribution of skills can be controlled (keep it scarce).

•Increase skill marketability.

Comparative picture of the conflict approach by Marx and Weber

Social control and deviance
 

[B][SIZE="5"]SOCIAL CONTROL AND DEVIANCE[/SIZE][/B]

Every group within society, and even human society itself, depends on norms for its existence.
These very norms make social life possible by making behavior predictable.
We can count on most people most of the time to meet the expectations of others.
As a result there is some kind of social order in the society.

Social order is a group’s usual and customary social arrangements, on which members depend and on which they base their lives.
Without social order there is likely to be chaos.

[B][SIZE="3"]Social Control[/SIZE][/B]

Every society or group develops its mechanism for making its members to obey the norms for the smooth functioning of its life.
These are the attempts of society to regulate people’s thoughts and behavior.
This process, may be formal or informal, is referred to as social control.
Hence social control is a group’s formal and informal means of enforcing its norms.

[B][SIZE="3"]Deviance[/SIZE][/B]

Sociologists use the term deviance to refer to a violation of norms of culture.
Sociologists use the term deviance to refer to the violation of norms.
How a society defines deviance, which is branded as deviant, and what people decide to do about deviance all have to do the way society is organized.

[B][SIZE="3"]THE SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF DEVIANCE[/SIZE][/B]

In the sociological perspective all behavior – deviance as well as conformity – is shaped by society.
Therefore the society lays the foundation of deviance and that is how the title of this discussion.

The social foundations of deviance may be looked at from three dimensions:

[B]1. Cultural relativity of deviance[/B]

No thought or action is inherently deviant; it becomes deviant only in relation to particular norms.
Sociologists use the term deviance to refer to a violation of norms of culture.
One may look at three basic principles:

(1) It is not the action itself, but the reactions to the act that makes something deviant.
In other words people’s behavior must be viewed from the framework of the culture in which it takes place.

(2) Different groups are likely to have different norms therefore what is deviant to some is not deviant to others.

(3) This principle holds within a society as well as across cultures.
Thus acts perfectly acceptable in one culture – or in one group within a society – may be considered deviant in another culture, or in another group within the same society.

Sociologists use the term deviance non-judgmentally, to refer to any act to which people respond negatively.

When sociologists use this term, it does not mean that they agree that the act is bad, just because others judge it negatively.
If we have to understand a particular behavior, we must understand the meanings people give to that event. Consequently we must consider deviance from within a group’s own framework, for it is their meanings that underlie their behavior.

[B]2.Who defines deviance?[/B]

People become deviant as others define them that way. If deviance does not lie in the act, but in definition of the act, where do these definitions come from? The simple answer is that the definitions come from people. May be through trial and error process people determine the appropriate patterns of behavior for the smooth functioning of their society. They themselves decide what is desirable and what is undesirable for having social order in their society. These are actually the social norms of the people. These norms are incorporated in the mechanics of social control. The process may be a little different in a simple and small society than in a complex and large society having ethnic variations.

[B]3.Both rule making and rule breaking involve social power.[/B]

Each society is dominated by a group of elite, powerful people, who make the decisions for making rules,
which become part of the social control system in the society.
The powerful group of people makes sure that their interests are protected.
The machinery of social control usually represents the interests of people with social power.

A law amounts a little more than a means by which powerful people protect their interests.
For example the owners of an unprofitable factory have the legal right to shut down their business,
even if doing so puts thousands of workers out of work.
But if a worker commits an act of vandalism that closes the same factory for a single day is subject to criminal prosecution.


[B][SIZE="3"]IS DEVIANCE FUNCTIONAL?[/SIZE][/B]

When we think of deviance, its dysfunctions are likely to come to mind. Most of us are upset by deviance, especially crime, and assume that society would be better off without it. Surprisingly for Durkheim there is nothing abnormal about deviance; in fact it contributes to the functioning of the society in four ways:

[B]1.Deviance affirms cultural values and norms.[/B]

Living demands that we make moral choices. To prevent our culture from dissolving into chaos, people must show preference for some attitudes and behaviors over others. But any conception of virtue rests upon an opposing notion of vice. And just as there can be no good without evil, there can be no justice without crime. Deviance is indispensable to creating and sustaining morality.

[B]2.Deviance clarifies moral boundaries and affirms norms.[/B]

A group’s ideas about how people should act and think mark its moral boundaries. Deviance challenges those boundaries. To call a deviant member to explain, say in effect, “ you broke a valuable rule, and we cannot tolerate that,” affirms the group’s norms and clarifies the distinction between conforming and deviating behavior. To deal with deviants is to assert what it means to a member of the group. For example there is a line between academic honesty and cheating by punishing students who do so.

[B]3.Deviance promotes social unity.[/B]

To affirm the group’s moral boundaries by reacting to deviants, deviance develops a “we” feeling among the group’s members. In saying “you can’t get by with that,” the group collectively affirms the rightness of its own ways.

[B]4.Deviance promotes social change.[/B]

Deviant people push a society’s moral boundaries, pointing out alternatives to the status quo and encouraging change. Groups always do not agree on what to do with people who push beyond their acceptable ways of doing things. Some group members even approve the rule-breaking behavior. Boundary violations that gain enough support become new, acceptable behavior. Thus deviance may force a group to rethink and redefine its moral boundaries, helping groups and whole societies, to change their customary ways. Today’s deviance can become tomorrow’s morality.

it is not the act itself, but the reactions to the act, that makes something deviant.[B]In other words, people’s behavior must be viewed from the framework of the culture in which that takes place. [/B]

Therefore it is group’s definition of behavior, not the behavior itself that makes it deviant.

[B]Perhaps everybody violates the norms of society, but every violation may not be defined as deviance. [/B]

[B]So “what is deviance”, is the creation of the society[/B]

i.e. an act to which people responds negatively is deviance.
Social creation of deviance and crime is also called social construction of deviance and crime.

[B]The preceding discussion can also be called as “relativity of deviance.” [/B]
An act, which is called deviance by one group in one culture, is considered as praise worthy by another group in another culture.
Similarly what is deviance at one time may not be considered so at another time.

Look at somebody who is called by one group as a terrorist and by another as a freedom fighter. Sociologists usually use the term deviance non-judgmentally

The concept of deviance can be applied to individual acts and to the activity of groups.

Deviant group behavior may result in deviant sub-culture.

[B][SIZE="3"]Causes of Deviance:[/SIZE][/B]

Broken family
Lack of interest in Education.
lack of Religious education and moral values.
Lack of basic facilities.
Desire of accumulation of wealth.
Parentless child.
Mass Media:teenagers learn new techniques,dramas,movies etc.


[B][SIZE="3"]Types or Agencies of social control:[/SIZE][/B]

[B]Formal:[/B]Law ,military,police,legislation.

[B]Informal:[/B]folkways,gossip,public opinion,mores,resentment,slander.


[B][SIZE="3"]Steps to attain social control:[/SIZE][/B]

Model orphanage homes.
Reducing unemployment.
Recreational activities:Parks,family play.
Religious Education.
Role of Media.
Rule of Law.
Efficient police.

Community
 

[SIZE="5"][B]Community[/B][/SIZE]

Kingsley Davis defined it as the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of social life.

For Karl Mannheim community is any circle of people who live together and belong together in such a way that they do not share this or that particular interest only but a whole set of interests.

At the minimum it refers to a collection of people in a geographical area.

[B]Three other elements may also be present in any usage. [/B]

(1) Communities may be thought of as collections of people with a particular social structure; there are, therefore, collections which are not communities. Such a notion often equates community with rural or pre-industrial society and may, in addition, treat urban or industrial society as positively destructive.

(2) A sense of belonging or community spirit.

(3) All the daily activities of a community, work and non work, take place within the geographical area, which is self contained. Different accounts of community will contain any or all of these additional elements.

[B]We can list out the characteristics of a community as follows: [/B]

1. Territory
2. Close and informal relationships
3. Mutuality
4. Common values and beliefs
5. Organized interaction
6. Strong group feeling
7. Cultural similarity

[B]A Community is a Sociological Construct:[/B]
Not only is the concept of a community a "construct" (model), it is a "sociological construct." It is a set of interactions, human behaviours that have meaning and expectations between its members. Not just action, but actions based on shared expectations, values, beliefs and meanings between individuals.


[B][SIZE="3"]13 Most Important Characteristics or Elements of Community[/SIZE][/B]

Some of the important characteristics or elements of community are as follows:

[B](1) A group of people:[/B]
A group of people is the most fundamental or essential characteristic or element of community. This group may be small or large but community always refers to a group of people. Because without a group of people we can’t think of a community, when a group of people live together and share a common life and binded by a strong sense of community consciousness at that moment a community is formed. Hence a group of people is the first pre-requisites of community.

[B](2) A definite locality:[/B]
It is the next important characteristic of a community. Because community is a territorial group. A group of people alone can’t form a community. A group of people forms a community only when they reside in a definite territory. The territory need not be fixed forever. A group of people like nomadic people may change their habitations. But majority community are settled and a strong bond of unity and solidarity is derived from their living in a definite locality.

[B](3) Community Sentiment:[/B]
It is another important characteristic or element of community. Because without community sentiment a community can’t be formed only with a group of people and a definite locality. Community sentiment refers to a strong sense of awe feeling among the members or a feeling of belonging together. It refers to a sentiment of common living that exists among the members of a locality. Because of common living within an area for a long time a sentiment of common living is created among the members of that area. With this the members emotionally identify themselves. This emotional identification of the members distinguishes them from the members of other community.

[B](4) Naturality:[/B]
Communities are naturally organised. It is neither a product of human will nor created by an act of government. It grows spontaneously. Individuals became the member by birth.

[B](5) Permanence :[/B]
Community is always a permanent group. It refers to a permanent living of individuals within a definite territory. It is not temporary like that of a crowd or association.

[B](6) Similarity:[/B]
The members of a community are similar in a number of ways. As they live within a definite locality they lead a common life and share some common ends. Among the members similarity in language, culture, customs, and traditions and in many other things is observed. Similarities in these respects are responsible for the development of community sentiment.

[B](7) Wider Ends:[/B]
A community has wider ends. Members of a community associate not for the fulfillment of a particular end but for a variety of ends. These are natural for a community.

[B](8) Total organised social life:[/B]
A community is marked by total organised social life. It means a community includes all aspects of social life. Hence a community is a society in miniature.

[B](9) A Particular Name :[/B]
Every community has a particular name by which it is known to the world. Members of a community are also identified by that name. For example people living in Odisha is known as odia.

[B](10) No Legal Status:[/B]
A community has no legal status because it is not a legal person. It has no rights and duties in the eyes of law. It is not created by the law of the land.

[B](11) Size of Community:[/B]
A community is classified on the basis of it’s size. It may be big or small. Village is an example of a small community whereas a nation or even the world is an example of a big community. Both the type of community are essential for human life.

[B](12) Concrete Nature:[/B]
A community is concrete in nature. As it refers to a group of people living in a particular locality we can see its existence. Hence it is concrete.

[B](13) A community exists within society and possesses distinguishable structure which distinguishes it from others.[/B]



[B][SIZE="3"]Rural Community[/SIZE][/B]

Rural communities are small, less dense and homogeneous

Rural areas are characterized with having small, tight-knit communities. where everyone knows everyone else,. Geographically small Villages or small towns are considered to be rural areas.
People know each other and are neighbors, friends, etc. Rural areas are classified according their small population and having farming abilities . Rural areas are more community based people and depend on social gatherings and other similar events.


[SIZE="3"][B]Urban Community [/B][/SIZE]
Generally speaking, the urban communities are identified as large, dense and heterogeneous .

Social Mobility
 

[B][SIZE="5"]Social Mobility[/SIZE][/B]


Individuals are recognized in society through the statuses they occupy and the roles they enact.
The society as well as individuals is dynamic. Men are normally engaged in endless endeavor to enhance their statuses in society, move from lower position to higher position, secure superior job from an inferior one. For various reasons people of the higher status and position may be forced to come down to a lower status and position. Thus people in society continue to move up and down the status scale. This movement is called social mobility.

The study of social mobility is an important aspect of social stratification.Infact it is an inseparable aspect of social stratification system because the nature, form, range and degree of social mobility depends on the very nature of stratification system. Stratification system refers to the process of placing individuals in different layers or strata.

According to Wallace and Wallace social mobility is the movement of a person or persons from one social status to another.W.P Scott has defined sociology as the movement of an individual or group from one social class or social stratum to another.

[B][SIZE="3"]Types of Social Mobility[/SIZE][/B]


[B]Territorial Mobility:[/B]

It is the change of residence from one place to another. In rural area of Pakistan this mobility found because the people of a community dislike leaving their ancestral place of living. In urban areas the people sell one house and purchase on other, one and get another on rent; leave one city and migrate to another.
In Karachi 70 to 80 thousand people enter the city annually from other parts of the country. In 1959 the migrants constituted 82% of the total population. Within the last 30 years, the population growth rate in Karachi has been 7% annually (Figures taken from the 10th annual conference 1977 of Pakistan Sociological Association Journal on Urbanization in Pakistan). According to an estimate 4% of the population is shifting from rural to urban areas of Pakistan.
Some people migrate to cities due to modern facilities of education, health, recreation and transportation. Some for Jobs and some migrate for other reasons.



[B]Horizontal And Vertical Social Mobility[/B]

A distinction is made between horizontal and vertical social mobility. The former refers to change of occupational position or role of an individual or a group without involving any change in its position in the social hierarchy, the latter refers essentially to changes in the position of an individual or a group along the social hierarchy. When a rural laborer comes to the city and becomes an industrial worker or a manager takes a position in another company there are no significant changes in their position in the hierarchy. Those are the examples of horizontal mobility. Horizontal mobility is a change in position without the change in statue. It indicates a change in position within the range of the same status.

It is a movement from one status to its equalivalent.But if an industrial worker becomes a businessman or lawyer he has radically changed his position in the stratification system. This is an example of vertical mobility. Vertical mobility refers to a movement of an individual or people or groups from one status to another. It involves change within the lifetime of an individual to a higher or lower status than the person had to begin with.

[B]Forms Of Vertical Social Mobility[/B]

The vertical mobility can take place in two ways - individuals and groups may improve their position in the hierarchy by moving upwards or their position might worsen and they may fall down the hierarchy
When individuals get into seats of political position; acquire money and exert influence over others because of their new status they are said to have achieved individual mobility.

Like individuals even groups also attain high social mobility. When a dalit from a village becomes an important official it is a case of upward mobility. On the other hand an aristocrat or a member of an upper class may be dispossessed of his wealth and he is forced to enter a manual occupation. This is an example of downward mobility.

[B]Inter-Generational Social Mobility [/B]

Time factor is an important element in social mobility. On the basis of the time factor involved in social mobility there is another type of inter-generational mobility. It is a change in status from that which a child began within the parents, household to that of the child upon reaching adulthood. It refers to a change in the status of family members from one generation to the next.

For example a farmer's son becoming an officer. It is important because the amount of this mobility in a society tells us to what extent inequalities are passed on from one generation to the next. If there is very little inter-generational mobility .inequality is clearly deeply built into the society for people' life chances are being determined at the moment of birth. When there is a mobility people are clearly able to achieve new statuses through their own efforts, regardless of the circumstances of their birth.

[B]Intra-Generational Mobility[/B]

Mobility taking place in personal terms within the lifespan of the same person is called intra-generational mobility. It refers to the advancement in one's social level during the course of one's lifetime. It may also be understood as a change in social status which occurs within a person's adult career. For example a person working as a supervisor in a factory becoming its assistant manager after getting promotion.

[B]Structural mobility[/B]

Structural mobility is a kind of vertical mobility. Structural mobility refers to mobility which is brought about by changes in stratification hierarchy itself. It is a vertical movement of a specific group, class or occupation relative to others in the stratification system. It is a type of forced mobility for it takes place because of the structural changes and not because of individual attempts. For example historical circumstances or labor market changes may lead to the rise of decline of an occupational group within the social hierarchy. An influx of immigrants may also alter class alignments -especially if the new arrivals are disproportionately highly skilled or unskilled.

[B][SIZE="3"]Causes of Social Mobility:[/SIZE][/B]

[B](1) Dissatisfaction from previous condition: [/B]The people stick to the same condition does not fulfil the purpose of new social ways of living. They leave it and attend to the new condition of life.

[B](2) Adoption of new conditions: [/B]The people leaving the vious conditions adopt the new ones which are functional according to the new ways of living. This adoption of new way of living is called.

[B](3) Industrial and Technological Development: [/B]The development of technology and industry brings about a have in the socio economic structure of society. The modes of living of the people are changed which bringabout change in attitudes, ideas, habits, customs and sentiment of the people. It means total socio-cultural life is changed. He we get social mobility.

[B](4) Education:[/B] The progress of education is imperative in n industrially advanced society. The development of technology industry and education are simultaneous processes being correlated. Advancement in education makes a society mobile.

[B](5) Urbanization:[/B] The development of urban population and modern attitude is called urbanization It is also attached with the development of education, technology and industry. These factors are interrelated together. The population of Faisalabad showed the highest increment (927%) in 1961-72 census. This factor of urbanization is being guessed due to high rate of expansion in technology industry and education in this city.

[B](6) Means of communication and Transportation: [/B]The means of communication and transportation play great role in bringing about social change. The people get traditional attitudes changed and accept modern ways of living by these sources of information.


[B]Systems of Social Mobility[/B]


[B][SIZE="3"]Open And Closed Systems Of Mobility[/SIZE][/B]

[B]A closed system of mobility is that where norms do not encourage mobility.[/B]

hierarchy. It justifies the inequality in the distribution of means of production status symbols and power positions and discourages any attempt to change them. Any attempt to bring about changes in such a system or to promote mobility is permanently suppressed.

In such a system individuals are assigned their place in the social structure on the basis of ascriptive criteria like age, birth, sex.Considerations of functional suitability or ideological notions of equality of opportunity are irrelevant in deciding the positions of individuals to different statuses. However no system in reality is perfectly close. Even in the most rigid systems of stratification limited degree of mobility exists. Traditional caste system in India is an example of closed system.

[B]In the open system the norms prescribed encourage mobility.[/B] There are independent principles of ranking like status, class and power. In and open system individuals are assigned to different positions in the social structure on the basis of their merit or achievement.

Open systems mobility is generally characterized with occupational diversity, a flexible hierarchy, differentiated social structure and rapidity of change. In such systems the hold of ascription based corporate groups like caste, kinship or extended family etc declines. The dominant values in such a system emphasize on equality and freedom of the individual and on change and innovation.

Social Institutions
 

[B][SIZE="5"]Social Institutions[/SIZE][/B]



[SIZE="3"][B]What is Social Institution?[/B][/SIZE]


A well-established and structured pattern of behavior of Group of people that is accepted as a fundamental part of a culture.

Institutions are structures and mechanisms of social order and cooperation governing the behavior of a set of individuals within a given human collectivity.

A set of organized beliefs, rules, and practices that establishes how a society will attempt to meet basic needs.

A socially approved system of values, norms, and roles that exists to

accomplish specific societal goals.



[B]Elements of Social Institutions[/B]

 A Group of People
 United by common interests
 Having material resources
 Having norms
 Fulfill some social need
 Preserve Values:Sentiments,Ethos,Customs,beliefs,rituals and traditions of culture.Deviation from them is condemned.

 Network of Norms:It means the people in an institution perform their roles according to the customs.

and general patterns of social life when established become customs.



[B]Characteristics of Social Institutions
[/B]
Social institutions are patterns of behavior Grouped about the central needs of human beings in society.

In all societies, the institution of Family plays a central role.

Social institutions are therefore social patterns directing the ordered behavior of human beings in the performance of their basic activities.

The continuity of institutional practices is further assured by the development of rituals.

The central aspects of institutions are the functions they perform and the pattern, established to carry out the functions.

The claim of institutions upon the members are also known as loyalties.

The institutions of a society are connected in a close end interdependent pattern.

Institutions are connected through status and role of the members.

Institutions are the most important AGencies in the formation of personality.

Social institutions are the great conservers and transmitters of cultural heritage.

Cultural heritage is thus transmitted through social interaction.



[B]General functions of Social Institutions[/B]

1. Institution Satisfy the Basic Needs of Society.

2. Institution Define Dominant Social Values.

3. Reproduction

4. Socialization

5. Institutions Establish Permanent Patterns of Social Behavior

6. Transmission of Culture.

7. Personality Development

8. Social Control through courts,assemblies,law ministry,law making and law enforcing agencies.

9. positive social sanctions i.e awards uniforms promotion praises

10. Negative Social sanctions through punishment discourage their violation of norms.

11. Preservation of Social Order.

12. Social institutions as agencies of social control by social sanctions.

13. Institutions Support Other Institutions.

14. Institutions Provide Roles for Individuals .



[B][SIZE="3"]Types of Social Institutions[/SIZE][/B]

[B]There are five Basic Types of Social Institutions[/B]

1.Family

2.Government

3.Economy

4.Education

5.Religion.




[B][SIZE="3"]Family[/SIZE][/B]

A fundamental social group in society typically consisting of one or two parents and their children.

Two or more people who share goals and values, have long-term commitments to one another, and reside usually in the same dwelling place.


[B]Functions of Family[/B]

• The control and regulation of sexual behavior.

• To provide for new members of society (children).

• To provide for the economic and emotional maintenance of individuals.

• Protection.

• To provide for primary socialization of children.

• To provide a sense of identity or belonging among its members.


• Education formal and informal so that it members may become useful members of society.It teaches elementary skills at home

• religious and Cultural values are transmitted to its members saying salam ,speaking truth offering prayers observing fasts reading kalma etc

• To transmit culture between generations


[B][SIZE="3"]Economic Institutions[/SIZE][/B]


 Economic Institutions are the set of norms related to production,distribution and consumption of goods and services.


 Economic Institutions are very important for almost all Groups.


 Economic growth and development has changed the pattern of interaction of people all over the world.




[B]Functions of Economic Institutions[/B]

Provide methods for the production of goods and services.

Provide methods for the distribution of goods and services.


Social Stratification:by distribution of economic resources.


Power and Authority:Economic resources provide power and authority to its holders.


Socialization:skills, techniques, different roles are assigned.


Need Satisfaction:like agriculture provides wheat,sugarcane,cotton,oilseeds and other raw material.


Income generation and employment:

Division of labour:


Economic Norms:rules regulations for controlling economic activity.


Enable society’s members to consume goods and services which are produced.



To Control and regulate goods and services.


Division of labour




[B][SIZE="3"]Political Institutions (Government)[/SIZE][/B]


 Set of norms pertaining to the distribution of power and authority concerning the management and control of society to bring order in life.

 A sociologist is interested in Politics because it deals with political behavior, public opinions, public relations, pressure groups etc…


 Structure of Government

1. Executive

2. Legislative

3. Judiciary


[B]Functions of Government[/B]

 The Institutionalization of norms (Laws).

 The enforcement of laws.

 Social Order maintenance

 Power and Authority.

The Adjudicating of conflict (Court).

 Provide for the welfare of members of society.

 Protection of Society from external threat.



[B][SIZE="3"]Educational Institutions[/SIZE][/B]


 Refer to the set of norms centered round the teaching and learning aiming at the adjustment of individuals to the environment.

 Education is synonyms with Socialization.

 Formal Education

 Informal Education


[B]Educational Institution Functions[/B]

 Transmitting culture.

 Preparation for future occupational roles.

 Character Building.

 Patrotism

 Rational thinking.

 Personal Thinking.

 Evaluating and selecting competent individuals

 Transmitting functional skills for functioning in society.

 To minimize the cultural lag in society

 It increase social mobility in society


[SIZE="3"][B]Religious Institutions[/B][/SIZE]


 Religious Institution is the system of believes and practices influencing human events where man is helpless to explain them.

 Supernaturalism and sacredness are the two main elements of Religious institutions.



[B]Functions of Religion[/B]


1. Providing solutions for unexplained natural, phenomena. Gives understanding of right and wrong, good and evil.

2. Religion creates social solidarity.
3. Religion relates man to man.
4. Preserve values.sanctity of women,respect for elders.
5. Socialization:norms,aatitude,rituals,sentiments through Quran and Hadith.
6. Relationship between God and man.
7. Social control.

8. Religion tends to support the normative structure of the society.

9. Furnishing a psychological diversion from unwanted life situations.

10. Sustaining the existing class structure.

11. Religion serves as an instrument of socialization.

12. Religion may both promote and retard social change.

Social Groups
 

[B][SIZE="5"]Social Groups[/SIZE][/B]


[B]A social group consists of two or more people who interact with one another and who recognize themselves as a distinct social unit.[/B]

The definition is simple enough, but it has significant implications.

Frequent interaction leads people to share values and beliefs. This similarity and the interaction cause them to identify with one another. Identification and attachment, in turn, stimulate more frequent and intense interaction. Each group maintains solidarity with all to other groups and other types of social systems.

[B]Groups are among the most stable and enduring of social units.[/B] They are important both to their members and to the society at large. Through encouraging regular and predictable behavior, groups form the foundation upon which society rests. Thus, a family, a village, a political party a trade union is all social groups. These, it should be noted are different from social classes, status groups or crowds, which not only lack structure but whose members are less aware or even unaware of the existence of the group. These have been called quasi-groups or groupings.

Nevertheless, the distinction between social groups and quasi-groups is fluid and variable since quasi-groups very often give rise to social groups, as for example, social classes give rise to political parties.

[B][SIZE="3"]Three groups:[/SIZE][/B]

Primary Groups
Secondary Groups
Reference Groups


[SIZE="3"][B]Primary Groups[/B][/SIZE]

If all groups are important to their members and to society, some groups are more important than others. Early in the twentieth century, Charles H. Cooley gave the name, primary groups, to those groups that he said are characterized by intimate face-to-face association and those are fundamental in the development and continued adjustment of their members. He identified three basic primary groups, the family, the child's play group, and the neighborhoods or community among adults. These groups, he said, are almost universal in all societies; they give to people their earliest and most complete experiences of social unity; they are instrumental in the development of the social life; and they promote the integration of their members in the larger society.

Since Cooley wrote, over 65 years ago, life in the United States has become much more urban, complex, and impersonal, and the family play group and neighborhood have become less dominant features of the social order. Secondary groups, characterized by anonymous, impersonal, and instrumental relationships, have become much more numerous. People move frequently, often from one section of the country to another and they change from established relationships and promoting widespread loneliness. Young people, particularly, turn to drugs, seek communal living groups and adopt deviant lifestyles in attempts to find meaningful primary-group relationships. The social context has changed so much so that primary group relationship today is not as simple as they were in Cooley's time.
__________________



[SIZE="3"][B]Secondary groups[/B][/SIZE]

An understanding of the modern industrial society requires an understanding of the secondary groups. The social groups other than those of primary groups may be termed as secondary groups. They are a residual category. They are often called special interest groups.Maclver and Page refers to them as great associations.


They are of the opinion that secondary groups have become almost inevitable today. Their appearance is mainly due to the growing cultural complexity. Primary groups are found predominantly in societies where life is relatively simple. With the expansion in population and territory of a society however interests become diversified and other types of relationships which can be called secondary or impersonal become necessary. Interests become differentiated. The services of experts are required. The new range of the interests demands a complex organization. Especially selected persons act on behalf of all and hence arises a hierarchy of officials called bureaucracy. These features characterize the rise of the modern state, the great corporation, the factory, the labor union, a university or a nationwide political party and so on. These are secondary groups.Ogburn and Nimkoff defines secondary groups as groups which provide experience lacking in intimacy. Frank D. Watson writes that the secondary group is larger and more formal ,is specialized and direct in its contacts and relies more for unity and continuance upon the stability of its social organization than does the primary group.


[SIZE="3"][B]Characteristics of secondary group: [/B][/SIZE]

[B]Dominance of secondary relations: [/B]
Secondary groups are characterized by indirect, impersonal, contractual and non-inclusive relations. Relations are indirect because secondary groups are bigger in size and members may not stay together. Relations are contractual in the sense they are oriented towards certain interests

[B]Largeness of the size:[/B] Secondary groups are relatively larger in size. City, nation, political parties, trade unions and corporations, international associations are bigger in size. They may have thousands and lakhs of members. There may not be any limit to the membership in the case of some secondary groups. Membership: Membership in the case of secondary groups is mainly voluntary. Individuals are at liberty to join or to go away from the groups. However there are some secondary groups like the state whose membership is almost involuntary.

[B]No physical basis:[/B] Secondary groups are not characterized by physical proximity. Many secondary groups are not limited to any definite area. There are some secondary groups like the Rotary Club and Lions Club which are international in character. The members of such groups are scattered over a vast area.

[B]Specific ends or interest: [/B]Secondary groups are formed for the realization of some specific interests or ends. They are called special interest groups. Members are interested in the groups because they have specific ends to aim at. Indirect communication: Contacts and communications in the case of secondary groups are mostly indirect. Mass media of communication such as radio, telephone, television, newspaper, movies, magazines and post and telegraph are resorted to by the members to have communication.

[B]Communication may not be quick and effective even.[/B] Impersonal nature of social relationships in secondary groups is both the cause and the effect of indirect communication.

[B]Nature of group control:[/B] Informal means of social control are less effective in regulating the relations of members. Moral control is only secondary. Formal means of social control such as law, legislation, police, court etc are made of to control the behavior of members. The behavior of the people is largely influenced and controlled by public opinion, propaganda, rule of law and political ideologies.

[B]Group structure: [/B]The secondary group has a formal structure. A formal authority is set up with designated powers and a clear-cut division of labor in which the function of each is specified in relation to the function of all. Secondary groups are mostly organized groups. Different statuses and roles that the members assume are specified. Distinctions based on caste, colour, religion, class, language etc are less rigid and there is greater tolerance towards other people or groups.

[B]Limited influence on personality: [/B]Secondary groups are specialized in character. People involvement in them is also of limited significance.Members's attachment to them is also very much limited. Further people spend most of their time in primary groups than in secondary groups. Hence secondary groups have very limited influence on the personality of the members.


[B][SIZE="3"]Reference Groups[/SIZE][/B]

According to Merton reference groups are those groups which are the referring points of the individuals, towards which he is oriented and which influences his opinion, tendency and behaviour.The individual is surrounded by countless reference groups. Both the memberships and inner groups and non memberships and outer groups may be reference groups.
__________________

[SIZE="5"][B]Caste[/B][/SIZE]

It is a permanent group in which status of an individual is fixed through heredity alone that tend to be fixed and immobile.
The members of caste usually create Biradri in Indo pak societies.
Characteristics of caste:

[B]Caste is a permanent group having its status ascribed at birth. It cannot be changed.[/B]

Caste is a system of stratification.
Caste is hierarchical divisions.
Caste is a closed social group.
[B]Sub culture:[/B] every caste has its own norms which can be different from others.
[B]Social control: [/B]every caste has its own informal methods of social control.

[SIZE="3"][B]Merits of caste system:[/B][/SIZE]

Biradri system….with intermarriages belonging to one caste.
Social solidarity high.
Norms are forceful and offer social control if violated members are thrown out of biradri.
Castes are endogamous... means they marry within caste.
Demerits of caste system:
Ethnocentrism among the members of one caste
Norms of castes are rigid in nature
New elements of changes are rejected resistance to change.
Marriage out of caste is rejected considered violation.

[B][SIZE="3"]Difference between caste and class system in Pakistan :
[/SIZE][/B]

Class is flexible
Class can change
Class does not form biradri
Class can be exogamous
There is less ethnocentrism in class
Feeling of association is less strong in classes
There is less solidarity in classes
Class favors social change
Classes do not have norms

Caste is rigid
Caste cannot change
Castes form biradri system
Castes are endogamous
Caste are ethnocentric
Feelings of association are more stronger in castes
There is more solidarity in castes
Castes reject social change
Castes have their own norms

[B][SIZE="3"]Biradri:[/SIZE][/B]
It is the group of people belonging to same caste, intermarryying together.
Two or more families related to each other are called biradri.
People of biradri do not necessarily live at the same place.
There may be different languages, styles, and customs in biradri.
Old biradries having same caste are still strong in Pakistan. They have more rigid norms.
Social violations in biradries are strictly condemned.
Endogamy is a strict condition in some of the biradries.

Status
 

[B][SIZE="5"]Status[/SIZE][/B]


The term has two sociological uses:

status simply as a position in a social system, such as child or parent.
Or used as a synonym for honor or prestige,

[B]A status is simply a rank or position that one holds in a group. [/B]

One occupies the status of son or daughter, playmate, pupil, radical, militant and so on.
Eventually one occupies the statuses of husband, mother bread-winner, cricket fan, and so on,
one has as many statuses as there are groups of which one is a member.

[B]For analytical purposes, statuses are divided into two basic types:[/B]

• Ascribed and
• Achieved.


[B][SIZE="3"]Ascribed Statuses[/SIZE][/B]

Ascribed statuses are those which are fixed for an individual at birth.
Ascribed statuses that exist in all societies include those based upon sex, age, race ethnic group and family background.
Similarly, power, prestige, privileges, and obligations always are differentially distributed in societies by the age of the participants.

[B][SIZE="3"]Achieved Statuses[/SIZE][/B]

Achieved statuses are those which the individual acquires during his or her lifetime as a result of the exercise of knowledge, ability, skill and/or perseverance.
Occupation provides an example of status that may be either ascribed or achieved, and which serves to differentiate caste-like societies from modern ones.

Social System:
 

[B][SIZE="5"]Social System[/SIZE][/B]

It is Talcott Parsons who has given the concept of ‘system’ current in modern sociology.

[B]Social system refers to’ an orderly arrangement, an inter relationships of parts. In the arrangement, every part has a fixed place and definite role to play. The parts are bound by interaction.[/B]

System signifies, thus, patterned relationship among constituent parts of a structure which is based on functional relations and which makes these parts active and binds them into reality.

To understand the functioning of a system,

[B]for example the human body, one has to analyse and identify the sub-systems (e.g. circulatory, nervous, digestive, excretionary systems etc.) and understand how these various subsystems enter into specific relations in the fulfillment of the organic function of the body.[/B]

Likewise, society may be viewed as a system of interrelated mutually dependent parts which cooperate to preserve
a recognisable whole and to satisfy some purposes or goal.

[B]Social system may be described as an arrangement of social interactions based on shared norms and values. [/B]

Individuals constitute it and each has place and function to perform within it.

Society is a system of usages, authority and mutuality based on “We” felling and likeness.

Differences within the society are not excluded. These are, however, subordinated to likeness.

Inter-dependence and cooperation are its basis. It is bound by reciprocal awareness.

It is essentially a pattern for imparting the social behaviour.

Applying these conclusions to society, social system may be described as an arrangement of social interactions based on shared norms and values. Individuals constitute it, and each has place and function to perform within it.

In the process, one influences the other; groups are formed and they gain influence, numerous subgroup come into existence.
But all of these are coherent. They function as a whole.

Neither individual, nor the group can function in isolation.

They are bound in oneness, by norms and values, culture and shared behaviour.

The pattern that thus comes into existence becomes the social system.

In the social system each of the interacting individual has function or role to perform in terms of the status he occupies in the system.

[B]For example, in the family parents, sons and daughters are required to perform certain socially recognised functions or roles.[/B]

Social system is a comprehensive arrangement.

It takes its orbit all the diverse subsystems such as the economic, political, religious and others and their interrelation too.

Social systems are bound by environment such as geography. And this differentiates one system from another.


[B][SIZE="3"]Elements of Social System:[/SIZE][/B]

The elements of social system are described as under:

[B]1. Faiths and Knowledge:[/B]
The faiths and knowledge brings about the uniformity in the behaviour.
They act as controlling agency of different types of human societies.
The faiths or the faith is the result of the prevalent customs and beliefs.
They enjoy the force of the individual are guided towards a particular direction.

[B]2. Sentiment:[/B]
Man does not live by reason alone.
Sentiments – filial, social, notional etc. have played immense role in investing society with continuity.
It is directly linked with the culture of the people.

[B]3. End Goal or object:[/B]
Man is born social and dependent.
He has to meet his requirements and fulfill his obligations.
Man and society exist between needs and satisfactions, end and goal.
These determine the nature of social system.
They provided the pathway of progress.

[B]4. Ideals and Norms:[/B]
The society lays down certain norms and ideals for keeping the social system intact and for determining the various functions of different units. These norms prescribe the rules and regulations on the basis of which individuals or persons may acquire their cultural goals and aims.
In other words ideals and norms are responsible for an ideal structure or system of the society.
Due to them the human behaviour does not become deviant and they act according to the norms of the society.
This leads to organization and stability.
These norms and ideals include folkways, customs, traditions, fashions, morality, religion, etc.

[B]5. Status-Role:[/B]
Every individual in society is functional.
He goes by status-role relation.
It may come to the individual by virtue of his birth, sex, caste, or age.
One may achieve it on the basis of service rendered.

[B]6. Role:[/B]
Like the status, society has prescribed different roles to different individuals.
Sometimes we find that there is a role attached to every status.
Role is the external expression of the status.
While discharging certain jobs or doing certain things, every individual keeps in his mind his status.
This thing leads to social integration, organization and unity in the social system.
In fact statuses and roles go together.
It is not possible to separate them completely from one another.

[B]7. Power:[/B]
Conflict is a part of social system, and order is its aim.
It is implicit, therefore, that some should be invested with the power to punish the guilty and reward those who set an example.
The authority exercising power will differ from group to group; while the authority of father may be supreme in the family,
in the state it is that of the ruler.

[B]8. Sanction:[/B]
It implies confirmation by the superior in authority, of the acts done by the subordinate or the imposition of penalty for any wrong doing.
The acts done or not done according to norms may bring reward and punishment.


[B][SIZE="3"]Characteristics of Social System:[/SIZE][/B]
Social system has certain characteristics. These characteristics are as follows:

[B]1. System is connected with the plurality of Individual actors:[/B]
It means that a system or social system cannot be borne as a result of the activity of one individual. It is the result of the activities of various individuals. For system, or social system, interaction of several individuals has to be there.

[B]2. Aim and Object:[/B]
Human interactions or activities of the individual actors should not be aimless or without object. These activities have to be according to certain aims and objects. The expression of different social relations borne as a result of human interaction.

[B]3. Order and Pattern amongst various Constituent Units:[/B]
Mere coming together of various constituent units that from social system does not necessarily create a social system. It has to be according to a pattern, arrangement and order. The underlined unity amongst various constituent units brings about ‘social system’.

[B]4. Functional Relationship is the Basis of Unity:[/B]
We have already seen different constituent units have a unity in order to form a system. This unity is based on functional relations. As a result of functional relationships between different constituent units an integrated whole is created and this is known as social system.

[B]5. Physical or Environmental Aspect of Social System:[/B]
It means that every social system is connected with a definite geographical area or place, time, society etc. In other words it means that social system is not the same at different times, at different place and under different circumstances. This characteristic of the social system again point out towards its dynamic or changeable nature.

[B]6. Linked with Cultural System:[/B]
Social system is also linked with cultural system. It means that cultural system bring about unity amongst different members of the society on the basis of cultures, traditions, religions etc.

[B]8. Characteristics of Adjustment:[/B]
Social system has the characteristic of adjustment. It is a dynamic phenomenon which is influenced by the changes caused in the social form. We have also seen that the social system is influenced by the aims, objects and the needs of the society. It means that the social system shall be relevant only if it changes itself according to the changed objects and needs. It has been seen that change takes place in the social system due to human needs, environment and historical conditions and phenomena.

[B]9. Order, Pattern and Balance:[/B]
Social system has the characteristics of pattern, order and balance. Social system is not an integrated whole but putting together of different units. This coming together does not take place in a random and haphazard manner. There is an order am’ balance.
It is so because different units of the society do not work as independent units but they do not exist in a vacuum but in a socio-cultural pattern. In the pattern different units have different functions and roles. It means that there is a pattern and order in the social system.


[B][SIZE="3"]Functions of Social System:[/SIZE][/B]

It is generally agreed that the social system has four primary functional problems to attend. These are:

1. Adaptation,
2. Goal attainment,
3. Integration,
4. Latent Pattern-Maintenance.

[B]1. Adaptation:[/B]
Adaptability of social system to the changing environment is essential. No doubt, a social system is the result of geographical environment and a long drawn historical process which by necessity gives it permanence and rigidity. Yet, that should not make it wooden and inelastic. It need be a flexible and functional phenomenon.
Economy for its maintenance, division of labour for better production of goods and effective services, and role differentiation for job opportunity is essential. Durkheim in Division of Labour in society has given great attention to the role of division of labour and role differentiation as these make possible a higher average degree of skill than would otherwise be possible.
Lack of adaptability, very often has caused the social system to be challenged. It has caused revolution resulting in the overhauling of the system. The British system, in the nineteenth century, when the continent was in the inferno of revolution, showed remarkable adaptability. It responded well to the mounting demands of change. Over the time our system has demonstrated the excellent sense of adaptability.

[B]2. Goal Attainment:[/B]
Goal attainment and adaptability are deeply interconnected. Both contribute to the maintenance of social order.
Every social system has one or more goals to be attained through cooperative effort. Perhaps the best example of a societal goal is national security. Adaptation to the social and nonsocial environment is, of course, necessary if goals are to be attained. But in addition, human and nonhuman resources must be mobilised in some effective way, according to the specific nature of tasks.
The economy of a society is that subsystem which produces goods and services for a wide variety of purposes; the “polity”, which includes above all the Government in complex societies, mobilizes goods and services for the attainment of specific goals of the total society regarded as a single social system.

[B]3. Integration:[/B]
Social system is essentially an integration system. In the general routine of life, it is not the society but the group or the subgroup in which one feels more involved and interested. Society, on the whole does not come into one’s calculations. Yet, we know as indicated by Durkheim, that individual is the product of society. Emotions, sentiments and historical forces are so strong that one cannot cut oneself from his moorings.
The working of these forces is best seen when society is involved in a domestic crisis or an external challenge. An appeal in the name of society, culture, heritage, patriotism, national solidarity or social welfare invokes quick response. Cooperation in effort is often demonstrative of integrating. It is the real basis of integration.

[B]4. Latent Pattern-maintenance:[/B]
Pattern maintenance and tension management is the primary function of social system. In absence of appropriate effort in this direction maintenance and continuity of social order is not possible. In fact within every social system there is the in built mechanism for the purpose.

recognized or implied purposes.
According to H.M Johnson, organization refers to an aspect of interaction systems.
At present the term social organization is used to refer to the interdependence of parts in groups.
These groups may vary in size and nature from workers to the factories. Many sociologists prefer to use the term social system to refer to the society as such rather than social organization.
The term is used in sociological studies and researches today to stress the importance of arrangement of parts in which the parts of society are related to each other and how each is related to the whole society.

Organization makes possible the complex activities in which the members of a complex society participate.
A small body of organized police can control a very large crowd. A small number of men constituting themselves as a government can rule a country.
Sometimes the word organization is used to refer to the associational groups.
It includes corporations, armies, schools, banks and prisons.
The society consists of many such organizations.
A state is frequently called a political organization.
A school may represent an educational organization and so on.
They are all social organizations.
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff entire society represents a wider organization; a social organization.
But society is also quite generally an organized group of interacting individuals.

Social Organization
 

[B][SIZE="5"]Social Organization[/SIZE][/B]

Ogburn and Nimkoff have defined organization is an Technical arrangement of different parts which perform various functions; it is an active group device for getting something done.

[B]Social Organization means social interaction among groups. Individual groups interrelated together create social organization.[/B]

All the social institutions are social organizations.

[B]Associations, clubs, and all other formal groups are social organizations.[/B]

In an organized body its members get into one another on the basis of roles and status.

Interaction among the members sets them into organizations.

Social organization is the product of social interaction.

[B]Social Interaction-----------Social Organization---------------Social system..[/B]

Individuals in a social organization perform their activities according to their social positions called status.

The activities done in an organization are called roles of the members.
Even individuals performs his roles according to his status.
So status and Roles are the basis of social participation in an organization.
Eliott and Merrill says, organization is a state of being, a condition in which the various institutions in a society are functioning in accordance with their

Social Norms and Social Sanctions
 

[B][SIZE="5"]Social Norms and Social Sanctions[/SIZE][/B]


[B][SIZE="3"]Social Norms[/SIZE][/B]

[B]Norms refer to the group shared expectations.[/B]
Social norms grow out of social value and both serve to differentiate human social behavior from that of other species.
The significance of learning in behavior varies from species to species and is closely linked to processes of communication.
Only human beings are capable of elaborate symbolic communication and of structuring their behavior in terms of abstract preferences that we have called values.

[B]Norms are the means through which values are expressed in behavior.[/B]
Norms generally are the rules and regulations that groups live by.
Or perhaps because the words, rules and regulations, call to mind some kind of formal listing, we might refer to norms as the standards of behavior of a group.

[B]For while some of the appropriate standards of behavior in most societies are written down, many of them are not that formal.[/B]
Many are learned, informally, in interaction with other people and are passed "that way from generation to generation.

The term "norms" covers an exceedingly wide range of behaviour.
So that the whole range of that behaviour may be included.
Sociologists have offered the following definition.

[B]Social norms are rules developed by a group of people that specify how people must, should, may, should not, and must not behave in various situations. [/B]
Some norms are defined by individual and societies as crucial to the society.

[B]For example, all members of the group are required to wear clothing and to bury their dead. [/B]
Such "musts" are often labeled "mores", a term coined by the American sociologist William Graham Sumner.

[B]Many social norms are concerned with "should "; that is, there is some pressure on the individual to conform but there is some leeway permitted also.[/B]

The 'should behaviors' are what Sumner called "folk-ways"; that is, conventional ways of doing things that are not defined as crucial to the survival of either the individual or the society.

The 'should behaviors' in our own society include the prescriptions that people's clothes should be clean, and that death should be recognized with public funerals.
A complete list of the should behaviors in a complex society would be virtually without end.

The word "May" in the definition of norms indicates that, in most groups, there is a wide range of behaviors in which the individual is given considerable choice.
To continue the illustration, in Western countries girls may select to wear dresses or halters and jeans.
Funerals may be held with or without flowers, with the casket open or closed, with or without religious participation, and so on.

[B][SIZE="3"]Functions of Norms:[/SIZE][/B]

[B]Control behaviour:[/B]as they provide a set pattern for our behaviour,these set patterns become customs when are socially approved.people are expected o follow these customs.

[B]Making behaviour systematic and patterned:[/B]systematic and patterned behaviour brings harmony among members of group.

[B]Safeguard of our values:[/B]They are guardian of our socio cultural values.

[B]Norms maintains social order of society:
[/B]
[B]Social norms create social cohesions and social solidarity:
[/B]
[B]Social Norms helps in self control:
[/B]


[B][SIZE="3"]Folk ways:[/SIZE][/B] These are socially approved ways of behaving in a society.
man actions repeted by him is his habit and a repeated behaviour by a group of people is a custom.Socially approved ways of behaviour are called Folkways.




[B][SIZE="3"]Social Sanctions[/SIZE][/B]

Social Sanctions: Sanctions are the rewards or punishments used to establish social control that is to enforce the norms in a society.
Rewards for conformity and punishments for non conformity.

Sanction, in the social sciences, a reaction (or the threat or promise of a reaction) by members of a social group indicating approval or disapproval of a mode of conduct and serving to enforce behavioral standards of the group. Punishment (negative sanction) and reward (positive sanction) regulate conduct in conformity with social norms (see norm). Sanctions may be diffuse—i.e., spontaneous expressions by members of the group acting as individuals—or they may be organized—i.e., actions that follow traditional and recognized procedures. Sanctions therefore include not only the organized punishments of law but also the formal rewards (e.g., honours and titles) and the informal scorn or esteem by members of a community.

[B]Types of of Social Sanctions:[/B]

[B]Formal sanctions:[/B]According to rules and laws are called formal.

[B]Positive formal sanctions:[/B]Promotions ,Increments in salary,certificates,degree.

[B]Negative Sanctions[/B]:Puting in jail.,police arrest ,court trial, death punishments.


[B]Informal Sanctions:[/B]Witout rule or law awarded by group,community,people of society.

[B]Positive Informal Sanction:[/B]praise,slogans acclamation of good,well behaving .

[B]Negative Informal Sanctions:[/B]Punishments without writing and rule.Threat admonishing ,abusing,calling bad names, beating and harsh treatment.

Do you have them in document format?

Can someone help me with the pdf file of feudalism in Pakistan by Nawab Haider Naqvi?