When culture declines in society, it loses its creativity, innovation and vibrancy. The decay becomes apparent in architecture, painting and literature and creates a space for scholars, artists, musicians and scientists to contribute to culture and civilisation.

In circumstances where society begins to degenerate, only those with authority and wealth are considered prominent people. In the last days of the Mughal Empire, the ruling classes endeavoured to become significant and important by assuming grandiose titles such as `pillar of the state`, `victorious in the battle field` and `lord of honesty and dignity In reality, however, they would betray their masters and switch loyalties in order to accomplish their selfish interests. Although the appearance of glory and prestige was hollow, they tried to adopt symbols that would transform them to a higher status despite the fact that they might have lacked talent, intellect, professional skills and physical beauty. Hence, their insignificant personalities were hidden behind glittering dresses, ornaments and jewellery. They tried to elevate their status by building and living in palaces and by possessing carriages, horses and elephants.

When they travelled or commuted, it was in the form of a procession which included a large number of servants to flaunt their power and dignity. Occasionally, they held grand feasts and banquets, where delicious food was cooked for guests who were also entertained by musicians and dancers. This extravagance was only possible by extracting taxes from peasants, thereby reducing them to abject poverty.In the end, the Mughal nobility paid the price for their grandeur and luxurious lifestyle. When Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali invaded India, they were the ones who became victims and lost their wealth and status to the invaders.Nobody came to help them or sympathise with them during the crises because there was a wide gap between them and the common man. A lesson to learn from their tragic downfall is not to become a victim of ignorance and arrogance like the Mughal nobility.

The Pakistani society faces similar problems which were encountered by the Mughal society during its decline. Our ruling classes are status conscious and demand homage and respect from the masses as their deliverers and leaders despite being corrupt themselves. Since they have no talent, professional skill or the intellectual capacity to fill this gap, they adopt artificial ways and means to achieve distinction in the society. As far as the people are concerned, they respect them as long they are in power. As soon as they lose their powerful status and fall to lower ranks, they are disrespected or ignored.

The ruling classes are, therefore, anxious to promote VIP or VVIP culture to hide their weaknesses. The signs and symbol of VIP culture are witnessed on a daily basis. For moving from point A to B, roads are blocked for traffic and the public has to wait for the procession of VIP vehicles to arrive and pass by. When they are invited to preside over a function, they always arrive late and the audience has to endure the torture of waiting for them. They do not have the courtesy to apologise for the inconvenience caused by them.

Their speeches, which are obviously written by professional speech writers, are full of hollow and artificial expression of nationalism and patriotism. They always advise people to work hard and devote their time to serve the country but they never practice themselves what they so passionately preach. They throw grand parties where a large number of their friends and colleagues are invited. These feasts involve elaborate arrangements to entertain guests. However, the food which is served to the drivers, servants and workers is of inferior quality, which shows their contempt towards the poor. Whenever they go to watch a performance or sport, a separate enclosure is reserved for them.

Their wealth, like the Mughal nobility, is extracted from the taxes of the poor people. The ruling classes accumulate wealth through illegal means and spend it to strengthen their social status.

In such a society, respect and honour is given to those who are intellectually bankrupt, mediocre and incapable of contributing to or promoting culture. Scholars are ignored and artists are contemptuously cheated, musicians are downgraded, professionals are discouraged and artisans looked down upon. Such a society cannot create or innovate anything because of the marginalisation of talented people.

The Pakistani society is paying a high price for its VVIP culture, which is devouring its resources and stealing fundamental rights from its people.
http://epaper.dawn.com/DetailNews.ph...2_2014_424_003

Red tape (Bureaucracy)

Bureaucracy defends the status quo long past the time when the quo has lost its status. — Laurence J. Peter
With the emergence of the State, the institution of bureaucracy was set up to administer affairs such as revenue collection, implementation of law, keeping a check on crime and upholding the maintenance of social order, price regulation for commodities and the welfare of people. In the early period of history, it was a custom among rulers to appoint administrative officers from the nobility. This was not based on merit but on the privilege of their birth. The system prevailed in most countries and continued for some time without a major change.

China was the first country to introduce the institution of bureaucracy systematically, which became well-organised and well-disciplined during the Han period. According to the Chinese system, bureaucrats were selected after a meticulous and competitive examination that was open to all classes of society. They were required to study the history of China, teachings of Confucius and the values and norms of morality.

In the first stage, examinations were held in districts throughout China. Those who qualified were allowed to appear in the final examination which was held in the capital. The duration of the examination was three days and the candidates were asked to bring their bedding, food, writing materials and chamber pot. Candidates were allotted a cell where they would spend three days writing answers to the questions. In case of the death of a candidate, his body was taken away from the cell without disturbing other candidates. Copying was strictly prohibited. In one case, an invigilator was beheaded because of negligence of duty.

Those who passed the examination were appointed on high and important posts. They were allowed to wear a special dress and have a carriage for their conveyance. They were married into the nobility in order to integrate them with the ruling classes. This system continued for nearly 2,000 years only to be interrupted by the Mongols who ruled over China and brought their own bureaucrats for administration. Revived again by the Ming dynasty, these bureaucrat scholars were known as mandarins.

In Europe, the modern bureaucratic system was introduced by the Prussian government. The administration was divided into different units and trained bureaucrats were appointed to deal with the affairs of each department. The other European governments followed it and instituted competitive examinations for selection of the bureaucrats.

In India, the British government established the Indian Civil Services (ICS) cadre for bureaucrats. The candidates were asked to learn Latin and other classical languages and the subjects of their choice included history, economics, politics and law. The maximum age for the candidate to appear was 20 years.

Despite the regulations, which were aimed at not giving the locals a fair chance, Rabindranath Tagore’s brother passed the examination, bewildering the British government. To ensure that such an incident would not repeat in the future, the government reduced the age from 20 to 18 years. The duration of their service was to be 30 years after which they would be retired. With the passage of time, the colonial rulers had no choice but to hold these examinations in India, so that the Indians could become a part of the colonial bureaucracy.

Hannah Arendt in her book The Origins of Totalitarian State points out that imperialism and bureaucracy were co-related. The example is British India, where 1,000 British bureaucrats administered and managed the affairs of the state in the subcontinent. They were highly paid in order to prevent them from resorting to bribery and corruption. They were honest and responsible officials who served the cause of colonialism with zeal. In India, bureaucracy was sustained and the colonial rule was strengthened by administrative skills.

In Pakistan, we inherited this colonial institution which was specifically designed for foreign rulers to run the administration with an anti-people approach. The same policy continued after partition. Gradually, the competitive examinations lost their validity while influential families would interfere with the process of selection to get appointments for their children and relatives. The institution further deteriorated when the system of lateral entry was introduced and ‘favourites’ were appointed on high posts without a fair judgment of their merits. Retired army officers also have a quota fixed in the civil services.

Consequently, most bureaucrats are not capable of dealing with the complex issues of their departments, their real interest being to obtain privileges and financial benefits that come with their appointment as civil servants. To get promoted, they require recommendations by higher authorities which are only possible through sycophancy and corruption. The institution of bureaucracy has been further ruined by military dictators and inefficient and corrupt politicians. There is a distance between the bureaucrats and people and officials are not interested in either solving the problems of the masses or in their welfare.

History shows us that when government officials become corrupt, inefficient and dishonest, the society faces crisis after crisis without any solution in sight. This is the situation that the Pakistani society confronts presently.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, January 4th, 2015
http://www.dawn.com/news/1154638/red-tape

__________________
"But screw your courage to the sticking place,
And we'll not fail." _Shakespeare, 'Macbeth')

Terrorism rarely achieves its end goals
History shows that terrorism has been used by various groups and parties from time to time to achieve their objectives. It has been used to suppress slaves, peasants and minorities so that the victims could be reduced to a state of submission and obedience.

Certain radical and revolutionary groups believe that through terrorism, rulers and high state officials can be eliminated and they could succeed in changing the structure of the state. Gangs of criminals and mafia tried to get rid of their opponents and rivals through terrorism in order to assert their power and independence.

In ancient Greece, the Dorians occupied Sparta after defeating the local inhabitants, known as Helots, and forcing them to cultivate land so that the agricultural produce would benefit the conquerors. It was customary for the Spartans to go to the residential areas of the Helots during the night and kill anyone who was found outside the house. This would create terror in the community, compelling them to remain obedient to the rulers.

At the end of the American civil war, slavery was abolished but Ku Klux Klan, a white underground terrorist group would not accept African-Americans as equals. They would dress up in white robes to emphasise the ‘purity’ of their race and also disguise their identities. They would subject the black population to lynching, firebombing and other terror attacks.. The black population thus lived in fear and dread, staying clear of the white areas.

Among Muslims, the first ‘terrorist’ organisation was that of the followers of Hassan-i-Sabbah (d.1124) in northern Persia. They were known as Fidayeens or devotees. They assassinated high government officials and ulema who opposed their ideology. It was customary that after killing their victim, they stayed on the spot to face the consequences.

In the 12th century, radical groups emerged in Russia whose targets were the czar and his ministers. Though they succeeded in killing the rulers and the ministers, the positions were replaced immediately and the structure of the state remained intact.

In India, after 1905 when Bengal was partitioned, various terrorist groups tried to destabilise the administrative working of the state by killing police officials and bombing public places. However, the British government repressed these movements and restored peace and order in the country.

In Iran, radical groups made several attempts to assassinate Mohammad Reza Pahalvi, but he survived and crushed these groups with the help of his secret police, called Savak. It shows that if state institutions are strong, they can crush terrorist movements and eliminate them.

On the other hand, sometimes the state uses terrorism to eradicate its opponents. But in the case of state terrorism, a legal procedure is adopted to deal with the anti-state elements. During the French revolution, the period between 1793 and 1794 is known as Reign of Terror. In order to protect the revolution from ‘anti’ forces, the revolutionary government established the committee of public safety and the revolutionary tribunal, which tried the king, the queen and a large number of people, condemning them to death penalty. Over 60,000 people were executed for being anti-revolutionaries. The same process was adopted by Russia and China after their respective revolutions.

History indicates that terrorist movements could not achieve their objects by creating panic in the society through killing, bombing and shooting people. Once they became involved in the act of terrorism, they lost the sympathy of the people and weaken their moral stance.

Learning lessons from history, the African National Council of South Africa finally decided to resort to non-violent methods to oppose the apartheid government. It succeeded in changing the structure of the state and black people were recognised as equals. The Irish Republican Army or the IRA continued with the policy of terrorism for a long period but in the end, they compromised with the political situation by adopting non-violence.

Similarly, the Basque Nationalist movement was a struggle for a separate homeland where terror was used as a mean to achieve success. Here also, violence was renounced in the end in order to compromise with the Spanish government.

Terrorist movements in the past have mostly failed to change the structure of the state or to transform a society according to their agenda. Terrorism instead plunges the country into bloodshed, anarchy and disorder without achieving its stated goals.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, January 11th, 2015
http://www.dawn.com/news/1155961/political-violence

__________________
"But screw your courage to the sticking place,
And we'll not fail." _Shakespeare, 'Macbeth')

State of violence

In the early period of history, when the institution of state was absent, tribes and communities were responsible for their own protection against any attack or invasion. Every member of a tribe would be well-armed not only to secure himself but also to defend his community in case of conflict. As a result, tribes would engage in warfare and bloodshed to resolve their differences.

If a member of a tribe was assassinated by the rival group, it was incumbent upon the family of the murdered one and his tribe to take revenge. It was a question of honour, and violence would be a part of the response. After the emergence of the institution of the state, the situation changed. Security was provided to tribes, which became united, ending mutual warfare and bloodshed.

In the light of this development, citizens of the state disarmed and only authorised individuals and institutions were allowed to carry arms. Any violation of the law was punished severely. Under this system, if a person was killed by his opponent, it was the responsibility of the state and not the family or tribe to pursue the case and punish the perpetrator.

As long as the state controlled all ways and means of violence and did not allow any group or organisation to use violence for its vested interests, the society remained peaceful. However, the situation deteriorated when the state weakened and consequently different groups and mafias seized power, using violence to further strengthen themselves.

Commenting on this situation, Thomas Aquinas, a theologian of medieval Europe pointed out that violence is the monopoly of the state. His version of the state was of medieval kingship when knights as professional warriors upheld its rule and power, crushing any rebellion against the authority of the state. In his book The Civilising Process, Norbert Elias further explained that the state subdued the aggressive nature of man and made attempts to pacify the society by using civilisational means. Societies changed their attitude as a result of education, art, literature and music, which influenced its sensibilities.

On one hand however, the monopoly of the state over violence ended the culture of warlords and united the society on the basis of mutual interest. But on the other hand, the state also became dangerous when it was captured by fanatics and extremists who used its violent institutions such as the army, police and secret agencies to eliminate their opponents and to establish their hegemony.

A recent example is of Pol Pot of Cambodia who after seizing political power adopted the policy of genocide in order to further his political ideology. Dictators and totalitarian rulers in the past used state violence to empower their rule and to terrorise people so that they would not raise a voice against them.

Keeping in view this historical perspective, when we study the Pakistani state and its role to monopolise violence, we find that it has failed in this attempt, and as a result, powerful groups and parties armed themselves against the law and used violence to accomplish their agenda. Sectarian, ethnic and criminal groups have free access to arms and ammunition. As violence is widespread in the society, armed groups are busy in extortion of traders and shopkeepers, or kidnap people for ransom and kill them in case of any defiance or resistance. The plague of target killing is prevalent and continues unchecked because of weakness of the state and its apparatus. In the presence of these armed groups, state institutions such as the army, police, rangers, judiciary and secret agencies are rendered helpless. When intellectuals and politicians discuss terrorism, violence and lawlessness, it seems that they have failed to understand the root cause of the problem.

History shows that the institution of the state has played an important role in maintaining peace, security and order for which it is necessary for the state not only to become stable and strong but also to be able to take stern action against all warlords, gangs and armed groups who challenge state authority.

At present, our society is confronted with criminal and violent activities of different religious, sectarian and ethnic groups without being able to crush their power. When violence is scattered in the society and state cannot control it, people feel insecure and lose faith in the state. They seek protection against mafias and gangs and live in a state of despondency and disillusionment.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, January 18th, 2015.
http://www.dawn.com/news/1157404/pas...te-of-violence

__________________
"But screw your courage to the sticking place,
And we'll not fail." _Shakespeare, 'Macbeth')

Twist and shout

History is often revised to advance political or ideological agendas.
In the history of every nation, some events are considered to be more significant and important than others. At times they are remembered and celebrated in order to inspire people to respond to the challenges of the time. Sometimes they remain a forgotten part of the past.

Paul A. Cohen in his book History and Popular Memory narrates some historical events and describes certain personalities who have played an important role in national struggles and resistance against adversaries.

The first event that he points out is the battle of Kosovo fought between the Turks and the Serbs in 1448. The battle became a memorable event in the history of Serbia because those who fought in the battle sacrificed their lives for the honour of their nation. It is said that before the beginning of the battle, the Serbian leader addressed his army and told them that they had only two choices; one, to live in the kingdom of heaven and two, to accept the slavery of Turks and face humiliation on this earth.

The result was a bloody battle in which the Ottoman army led by Sultan Murad slaughtered the Serbians and defeated them. Though the Serbs were defeated, they immortalised their defeat and recognised those who died in the battlefield as national heroes. More than 500 years have gone by, yet the Serbs have never forgotten the battle of Kosovo and celebrate it as their national pride.

In 1989, when the communist government of Russia fell into disarry, Yugoslavia (which united different ethnic nationalities) disintegrated. As a result, Serbia emerged as an independent nation and made attempts to infuse the spirit of nationalism among its people. The event of the battle of Kosovo was resurrected and a ceremony was held in the very battlefield of Kosovo.

A bloody conflict followed among different nationalities including Albanians, Croatians and Bosnians while Kosovo became an independent country despite Serbia’s protest. However, the battle of Kosovo remains an unforgettable event in the history of the Serbs.

Another important event was the Siege of Masada, when the Romans invaded Jerusalem in 70AD and destroyed the Israelite city and the temple of the Jews. A religious extremist group of the Jews known as Zealots took refuge in the fortress of Masada. When the Roman soldiers attacked the fortress, the Zealots decided to commit mass suicide by setting the fortress ablaze. This was the only way to save themselves from the humiliation of being killed or enslaved by the Romans.

When the Roman army entered the fortress they found nothing but dead bodies of the besieged Jews. The story of this deadly ritual of suicide was told to the Romans by two women and five children who survived by hiding somewhere in the fort.

After occupying Palestine, the Israelis transformed the fortress of Masada into a shrine where the recruits of the Israeli army visited and took an oath to not allow the same event to ever happen again. Children visited Masada on school trips and learnt about the bravery and courage of those who died but did not submit to the enemy.

However, as the Israeli government became politically stable, it changed the symbolic importance of Masada because they thought it reflected defeat and failure instead of the bravery of the Jews. The new message was that the Jews must not surrender but resist in order to ensure their survival and existence. Masada is still a national monument but the army and school children are not obliged to take an oath to repeat the tradition of the Jews who committed suicide. This is how the interpretation of history is transformed according to current national needs.

A third example of an unforgettable event is that of Joan of Arc (d.1431), a peasant girl of 17, who claimed that she received visions of the Archangel Michael, Saint Margaret and Saint Catherine instructing her to support Charles VII and rescue France from English domination late in the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) between England and France.

When she approached the French king and told him that she would liberate the country from the foreign army, no one took her seriously but eventually King Charles VII sent Joan to the siege of Orléans as part of a relief mission. The siege was lifted in only nine days.

Several additional swift victories led to Charles VII’s coronation at Reims. In 1430, she was captured at Compiègne by the allied English-Burgundian faction and later handed over to the English and then put on trial by the pro-English Bishop of Beauvais Pierre Cauchon on charges of being a witch, a heretic and a liar who had misguided people by her false claims. After Cauchon declared her guilty, she was burned at the stake in 1431, dying at about 19 years of age.

Her story was revived in the 18th century and she was portrayed as a national heroine. She emerged as a source of inspiration during the Second World War when Marshal Petain (d.1951) established a government with the collaboration of Germans who occupied France. He invoked John of Arc as a national heroine who saved France from foreigners. He ritualised her memory, published pamphlets, narrated her achievements and organised celebrations in her memory in order to legitimise his rule.

On the other hand, John of Arc also became a national symbol to Charles De Gaulle (d.1970), leader of the resistance movement. In his office were portraits of Joan of Arc and Napoleon. De Gaulle considered himself the modern Joan of Arc as he struggled against the occupation of the Germans. History is used politically to fulfill the designs of the nations who need to derive inspiration and hope from past events.

In the history of subcontinent, past events and personalities have either been politically revived or razed. The temple of Somanath was plundered and destroyed by Mehmood of Ghazni in 1025 AD. The event was largely forgotten, but after independence, some Hindu groups revived the memory of the destruction of temple and rebuilt it as a sacred monument. Romila Thapar in her book Somanatha: The Many Voices of a History points out how a forgotten event has been restored to inspire Hindu nationalism.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, January 25th, 2015
http://www.dawn.com/news/1158924/twist-and-shout

__________________
"But screw your courage to the sticking place,
And we'll not fail." _Shakespeare, 'Macbeth')

What Confucius taught us

We love Chinese food and culture, how about some Chinese philosophy?
When a society passes through critical crises, alternative systems emerge to tackle the situation. Reformers try to repair the broken system and make it functional again. On the other hand, revolutionaries and radicals want to completely abolish old institutions and replace them with new ones that are based on their ideology.

After developing an understanding of the society and its problems, philosophers, thinkers and intellectuals present ideas and thoughts to change the social fabric. The role of philosophers became crucial and effective in Chinese history whenever the society faced political, social and economic difficulties.

The famous philosopher who presented innovative ideas to control the crises and to transform the society was Confucius, who was born in 551BC at Lu (Northern China). After completing his education, he wandered from one state to another in search of employment as he wanted to implement his ideas through state authority. But he failed to get a job and returned home disappointed.

Later, when he became a teacher, he attracted students and disciples who were eager to learn his brand of philosophy. He established an academy, which was an innovation because there was no such educational institution in China at the time. Previously, education was a privilege only for children from the nobility, but his academy was open to the rich and poor alike. This showed his belief in social equality. He introduced a curriculum which included poetry, history, politics, music and sports with the objective of producing educated and well-rounded people for a model society.

Confucius, like Socrates, did not write anything but verbally transmitted his knowledge to his students. Later, his disciples collected his sayings in the form of a book entitled Annalex. Through this book, we can study the philosophy and ideology of Confucius which emphasises the creation of a class of morally and ethically sound bureaucrats. He believed that the three qualities imperative for government officials were kindness, courtesy and compassion.

He wanted them to be appointed on the basis of their intelligence and merit, and not by right of birth or because they belonged to a privileged family. Thirdly, he believed that they should have the determination and courage to implement law and order, and perform their duties without any fear of higher authorities. Candidates appearing in the examination for bureaucracy or civil service had to learn and memorise the ideas and teachings of Confucius as part of the curriculum.

Confucius also laid stress on maintaining the hierarchical order of the society. In a family, children should obey their parents and look after them in their old age. Since there was no system of social security for the elderly, this ensured that the family would be morally bound to take care of their elderly parents and grandparents.

He highlighted ancestry and the importance of linking the past to the present. He wanted people to obey their superiors and ultimately the ruler. Successive Chinese ruling dynasties adopted the philosophy of Confucius to control social and political problems and to establish their domination.

Is the philosophy or ideas of Confucius relevant today or not? In Pakistan, moral and ethical values have declined and thus corruption, lawlessness, disorder and anarchy have been unleashed. There is increased unemployment leading to an increased crime rate. The bureaucracy trained and educated on principles of colonialism is inefficient and corrupt, arrogant, rude and anti-people.

The society needs to learn moral values as a solution to these problems. Confucius’ philosophy is not based on any religious or spiritual authority but purely on a secular concept of meritocracy. Perhaps our society requires such moral and ethical values to restore honesty, piety, dignity and compassion.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, February 1st, 2015
http://www.dawn.com/news/1160430/pas...cius-taught-us

__________________
"But screw your courage to the sticking place,
And we'll not fail." _Shakespeare, 'Macbeth')

Turncoats and traitors

These are the tales of those who refuse to bend before the prevailing winds, and are broken as a result.
Opportunism is a characteristic of human nature. Some people may adopt it to retain their status, privileges and property, while others use it to get more power and favour from the ruling authorities.

However, there are examples in history where some individuals declined their chance to become opportunists, defied political authority and refused to change their loyalties under new circumstances.

After defeating the Qin Dynasty, Kublai Khan, the Mongol conqueror, became the ruler of China. Since he needed experienced Chinese officials to run the administration, he was eager for the old bureaucracy to support and cooperate with him. Most of the officials submitted to Kublai Khan but there was one minister reputed for his honesty, efficiency and loyalty to the past government, who rejected the offer saying that he could not serve two masters. The Khan disapproved his response and ordered his execution.

Another example in the history of England is of King Henry VIII who wanted to divorce his wife and marry another woman. He asked his chancellor Sir Thomas Moore to pursue the pope for permission to remarry. Moore refused to oblige the king; infuriated, the king ordered his arrest. He was imprisoned in the Tower of London, tried on fictitious charges and finally executed. By setting an example of ethics and morality, Sir Thomas Moore left his name to posterity.

On the other hand, throughout history there are many examples of individuals who compromised national interest, changing loyalties from one authority to another for the sake of personal benefits. When the Mughal emperor Humayun invaded Gujarat, defeating the ruler Bahadur Shah, one of Bahadur Shah’s nobles known as Rumi Khan betrayed Shah and joined the Mughal forces to help them occupy Gujarat.

He was denounced by the people of Gujarat as a traitor. One day when Humayun was in his court, Rumi Khan arrived to pay him homage but much to his dismay, he was received by Bahadur Shah’s favourite parrot in a cage hung from the ceiling, chanting ‘Rumi Khan ghaddar, Rumi Khan ghaddar’ (Rumi Khan, the betrayer).

These chants echoed in the silence of the court and Humayun and the courtiers were stunned, while Rumi Khan’s head was lowered in disgrace. The parrot apparently had learnt these words from the people around him who had been calling Rumi Khan a traitor.

Humayun told him that if these words were uttered by a human, he would have executed him immediately, but he could not take any action against the bird.

In another example, Nadir Shah invaded India after defeating the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah, but agreed to a ceasefire after accepting Rs2 crores to return to Afghanistan. But Saadat-ul-Mulk, an ambitious Mughal noble who had just arrived from Iran was furious at the Mughal emperor for appointing Nizam-ul-Mulk at the post of Amir-ul-Umra as he wanted the post for himself.

So he decided to take revenge at the cost of his loyalty to the Mughals. He told Nadir Shah that the Rs2 crores which he accepted from the Mughal emperor was a pittance and that the Mughal treasury was full of riches which he should plunder. Nadir Shah changed his plan to return to his homeland and instead occupied Dehli, taking away the centuries-old Mughal treasury to Afghanistan.

Opportunism continues from the past to present. In Pakistan, we have many examples of bureaucrats, politicians and intellectuals who compromised national interest for personal advantage. Qudratullah Shahab, a top bureaucrat during the dictatorship of Ayub Khan undertook the job to close progressive newspapers because of their opposition to the dictatorship. To please Ayub Khan, he also established the Writers’ Guild to get the support of intellectuals for the government. However, in his memoirs Shahabnama, he projects himself as a democrat and a champion of freedom — a sharp contrast to his real self.

When Gen Zia came into power, he also approached writers to support his Government. He started to hold the Ahl-i-Qalam conferences and invited leading writers to Islamabad to attend and participate and present their literary writings. With the exception of a few, the majority of writers accepted his invitation without challenging the way he had come into power.

Hafeez Jalandhari after attending one conference remarked that it was due to Gen Zia that the writers of this country had access to the presidential house. He was the same poet who composed poems during World War II, urging the youth of India to join the British forces. Later on, he composed the national anthem of Pakistan and earned respect and reputation in society.

We can also find opportunism in the community of journalists and politicians who join one party after another violating all norms of morality. The people of Pakistan are accustomed to the examples of opportunism so these people are neither looked down upon nor disgraced in the society, instead they enjoy high status and privileges at the cost of honour and dignity.

When opportunism prevails in a society, it causes decline of moral values and promotes dishonesty, disloyalty and corruption, which consequently weakens the very foundation of the society.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, February 8th, 2015.
http://www.dawn.com/news/1161875/pas...s-and-traitors

__________________
"But screw your courage to the sticking place,
And we'll not fail." _Shakespeare, 'Macbeth')

Exchanges of value

Earlier, historians concentrated their research on the ruling classes as makers of history and neglected the marginalised groups including traders and merchants. They began to focus their attention towards the role of trading activities, when they realised that trade brought external and internal, social, cultural and economic changes in society.

For the sake of profit, traders travelled to far off countries, risked disasters, bandits and endured all sorts of trouble to accomplish their missions.

They brought unusual and extraordinary merchandise from other countries and introduced them in their society. They also increased the knowledge of language, culture and history.

Historians made efforts to find various sources of their commercial activities and brought to light their contribution to history. Rulers patronised them, built rest houses called serai on highways for their convenience and arranged protection for their caravans. In exchange, they got revenue as well as precious commodities from other countries.

Correspondence between the Assyrian merchants and their families is on record. One merchant wrote a letter on a clay tablet in cuneiform script, asking his wife to send him textile and other goods which he needed for the market. She replied saying that she had financial issues and had spent all the money that he had left behind for expenses. It indicates how the merchants communicated with their family to supply them with merchandise that they needed.

The other famous trading community was of the Phoenicians who originated from Lebanon and built the famous city of Carthage in North Africa. They had settlements in Spain, Sicily and Marseilles. After a conflict with the Roman Empire, they fought a number of battles known as the Punic Wars. Finally, Carthage was destroyed by the Romans and the Phoenicians lost their control of the Eastern Mediterranean region.

Another reputed trading community was of the Jews, who excelled in the art of trade and commerce. Recently, the business record of some Jewish firms written on papyrus was discovered in Egypt. It shows their commercial relations with different Jewish traders who were scattered in different countries.

Werner Sombart (d.1941), a German economist, highlighted the role of the Jews and their contribution to the rise of Capitalism. According to him, when they were expelled from Spain in 1492, they arrived at Antwerp, the port city of Holland which became the hub of commercial activities. When they moved to Amsterdam, it became the city of commerce and trade. When they moved to London from Amsterdam, their presence promoted commercial activities. On the basis of this argument, Sombart proved that wherever the Jewish community migrated, it contributed to the economy.

In the Islamic world, the Arab traders played a significant role. Just after the advent of Islam, the Arab traders reached South India and settled there under the protection of the local rulers. They married local women, adopted the local culture and language and became known as Mopalas. Other Arab traders reached Sri Lanka, South East Asia and China. It was because of these traders that Islam spread in South East Asia as they settled there with the local population.

In the medieval period, the Italian cities of Venice, Genoa and Florence played an important role in trade with the East. The traders of Venice earned so much profit that they built huge and imposing buildings in their city. They also founded the Padova University where scholars taught law, medicine and theology. The merchants of Florence specialised in woollen trade and flourished in their trading skills to become the bankers of Europe.

They became so powerful that they expelled the nobles from the city and took control.

The Medici family of Florence became so wealthy and influential that they got a member of their family elected as the Pope. Since they patronised artists, architects, sculptors and writers, during the Renaissance, Florence produced Machiavelli, Dante, Michelangelo and Galileo.

The European travellers were responsible for not only trade and commerce but also for encouraging Imperialism. When Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in 1493, he opened the gates to Portuguese colonialism in Africa and Asia. The Portuguese established their trading centres on the coast of Gujarat and captured the city of Goa which was ruled by the Sultan of Golkanda, and was populated by the Muslims and later became the Portuguese headquarters.

The other European powers followed in the footsteps of the Portuguese. Holland, England and France founded companies to trade with the East. The contribution of Holland in commercial activities was somewhat more than the other companies as they introduced an insurance system for its merchant ships as well as launching a scheme of shares for the public.

These European countries brought spices, textile, indigo and saltpetre. Taking advantage of political weakness, the European forces occupied Asian and African countries with the help of naval and armed forces. As a result, this direct political rule further benefitted trade and commerce.

The importance of traders continues to the present day with the process of modernisation and technological development. Business has become a special profession and traders have earned a high social status.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, February 22nd, 2015
http://www.dawn.com/news/1164672/pas...anges-of-value

__________________
"But screw your courage to the sticking place,
And we'll not fail." _Shakespeare, 'Macbeth')

The culture of work

Throughout history, the concept of work has evolved according to the structuring and restructuring of society. In the early period of human history, man hunted for food and gathered material for shelter, after which he enjoyed plenty of leisure time.

In the Neolithic period, when proper human settlements were established and agriculture was introduced, people worked in the fields to cultivate crops. The men worked in the field while women were engaged in domestic work. A new class of artisans also emerged to manufacture tools which were required for agricultural and domestic activities.

With the advancement of society new classes such as warriors and priests emerged. Both these classes were non-productive and relied on the surplus production of society. However, the task of the warriors was to defend the settlement against any invader and protect its people and property. The priests would devote their time and energy to please their gods and goddesses in order to ensure the health of the crops so that agriculture, and the settlement itself, would flourish. During this period, everyone had a task which was fulfilled to serve the society; hence, work became a guarantee for survival.

However, the character of work changed when the system of slavery was introduced. These slaves were either prisoners of war or those poor people who failed to pay debts to their feudal lords and sold themselves instead. Slaves were engaged to work in mines or employed as domestic servants, and generally performed those tasks that were avoided by other classes of society. The result was that the concept of the dignity of work became diminished due to its association with slaves.

There was no slavery in the society of the subcontinent. Instead, it was the caste system that established a social demarcation by dividing the society into four different classes based on their hereditary professions — the priests, the warriors, the peasants and the servants. A fifth class of ‘the untouchables’ regarded as the out-castes and the lowest on the social scale also existed. They were assigned menial cleaning duties and were not allowed to reside in the cities where they worked. Their settlements were located outside the walled cities.

However, society refused to recognise the importance of their work. They suffered humiliation and insult throughout history. Although Gandhi called them Harijans or the children of God, yet the mere change of name could not alter their status and they continued to belong to the lowest strata of society. Due to the fact that they cleaned dirt and filth, they were considered unclean, undignified and wretched.

In the slave-owning feudal society, rulers and aristocrats had a large number of slaves and servants to work for them. For example, a ruler would have a servant for each and everything that he did in his daily life. One would be in charge of dressing him up, one to serve meals and drinks, another for his weapons, horses and other animals.

The author of Bazm-i-Akhar provides a long list of servants who remained in attendance of the last Mughal ruler in order to fulfil his wishes immediately. Though the dynasty was in decline, the number of slaves nevertheless increased to serve the powerless emperor. The aristocracy also followed the same practice and employed a large staff to serve them day and night. To actually do their own work themselves was considered below their dignity. It is said that some of the ulema never learnt how to write because to them it was the profession of calligraphers and scribes, and to learn something was considered below their status. Therefore, they dictated the text and stamped their seal of approval as a proof of its validity.

In the medieval period, when the Turks arrived in India, they brought new technology such as the manufacturing of paper and new tools for the textile industry which in turn introduced new professions. This raised the standard of living of the artisan classes.

At the same time, the new rulers and the nobility required different kinds of dresses, jewellery, furniture, buildings and weapons which the artisans manufactured and became financially sound. This upset the aristocrats and nobility whose interest was to maintain their high status and keep the artisans socially subordinate to them. The tension between them is depicted in Ziauddin Barani’s Tareekh-i-Feroz Shahi where he criticised the new emerging classes as worthless, mean and uncultured.

When the British ruled in India, the English officers also followed the custom of employing a large number of servants for their comfort. A captain of the British army would have at least 15 servants at his disposal which included the cook, tailor, launderer, gardener, guards and a person to take care of the horses. It is said that the Viceregal Lodge had 3,000 servants for its maintenance.

After partition, we inherited this feudal perception of work in which any kind of labour is considered below one’s dignity and honour. The glimpses of this culture are still visible in both rural and urban areas. Feudal lords have a large number of servants to work for them. In the urban centres, bureaucrats and rich people consider it below their status to work.

A society where work is not respected cannot achieve a dignified place among other nations.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, March 1st, 2015
http://www.dawn.com/news/1166311/pas...ulture-of-work

__________________
"But screw your courage to the sticking place,
And we'll not fail." _Shakespeare, 'Macbeth')

Work is worship

Without the empowerment of the working class, true societal progress will remain a distant dream.

With the decline of feudalism and feudal culture, the industrial revolution transformed the structure of society and also changed the concept of work. Feudal values were replaced by a new, energetic and dynamic cultural tradition. The pride of belonging to a privileged family was no more an automatic right to higher status in society. It was replaced by merit, which subsequently subverted the established and conservative class structure.

It now became possible for an ordinary person to achieve high status in society on the basis of his skill, profession and work.

Ample opportunities were available to a new class of entrepreneurs who were not wealthy but had an innovative and creative mind which broke down the conservative order and introduced new techniques to promote industry.

There were many examples in Europe and America where the poorest and resource-less individuals achieved prominence because of their intellectual capacity and innovative skill. It was now possible for a person to go from rags to riches within a short span of time.

For instance, Andrew Carnegie who was a son of Scottish weaver migrated to America and became a steel industry tycoon. He contributed generously for the promotion of education and founded libraries in the cities. American industrialists supported universities and established research foundations for scholars to work in different academic fields.

We can find similar examples in Europe. The characteristics of these entrepreneurs were that they worked in their factories like other workers and never displayed their wealth, nor spent hard earned money on empty rituals and ceremonies. On the other hand, they contributed funds for libraries, art galleries and music halls. Such progress was possible only in an industrial society, where mobility from one class to another was rapid and based on merit and work.

Industrialisation produced a community of workers who were required to know how to handle machinery in a factory. This prerequisite made minimum education for workers essential and arrangements were made to train them in the use of new technical inventions. Factories required healthy workers who could be more productive than malnourished and sickly ones. This led to the introduction of reforms by the government in the health sector.

In the early period of industrialisation, nearly all technical inventions were made by technicians, not scientists. In factories, new professions such as managers, accountants, supervisors and engineers emerged, dividing workers into two classes: white collar workers who were bureaucrats and blue collar workers who were further subdivided into skilled and unskilled. These workers organised trade unions for their rights. On the basis of these organisations they demanded a reduction in their working hours as well as a raise in their salaries. This comradeship created political consciousness among the workers and they played an important role in the democratic system.

In England, the Labour Party emerged from the trade unions of workers whose main objective was to elect representatives for the parliament where they would support legislation for their advantage. The workers’ parties throughout Europe had a deep impact on the democratisation of the society. Fearful of the workers’ power, European governments granted them concessions which raised their living standard and consequently they earned respect in society. No more did work remain a humiliation as it was in the feudal culture but was now considered dignified. It was admired and praised in art and literature as important for the progress of a society.

With industrialisation, many new professions emerged. In the market, where the industrial products were sold, salesmen and salesgirls were trained how to interact with consumers. The art of displaying products in the shops was developed to attract the clients. A new aesthetic taste was developed which led to the creation of fashion and new commodities for daily use.

Industrialisation, however, created an inequality in the society which caused differences between rich and poor. In Europe, the condition of the workers is much improved but in the newly independent countries of the third world, the plight of the workers is deplorable.

In case of Pakistan, we still have dominance of the feudal culture because the process of industrialisation is very slow. As a result, work is still regarded as undignified and humiliating and the working class, despite its struggle, has failed to achieve a respectable status in society.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine,March 8th,2015
http://www.dawn.com/news/1167665/work-is-worship

__________________
"But screw your courage to the sticking place,
And we'll not fail." _Shakespeare, 'Macbeth')