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  #21  
Old Sunday, May 10, 2015
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Trial by ordeal

Torture has been used by the state to silence its political opponents. It is also used against criminals in order to maintain peace and security in the society. Here, the object of torture is to extract confessions and to punish in the name of the law, while actually disobeying the law. It is also used by religious sects and political parties against heretics, dissidents and enemies to either absorb them within the fold of their sects or parties or to crush their spirit in order to prevent them from creating further opposition and confrontation. In the case of individuals, torture is also used for revenge.

Interestingly, torturers usually aren’t some kind of easily identifiable monsters; they tend to be exactly like ordinary people in their daily lives. They have families and children who they love and feel affectionate towards, so it is difficult to understand how they become so brutal and unkind while inflicting pain on people, feeling no emotion when their victims cry out and express their suffering and helplessness. Those who torture others do not let their feelings and emotions interfere with their work. The reason perhaps is that those who are authorised by the state to torture its victims are duty bound to consider them enemies, anti-state elements and a threat to state security and existence. These arguments dehumanise the victims, making it easy for the agents of the state to eliminate them. There are many examples of state authorities torturing political opponents in violation of the law. In some of these cases, the opponents are either killed or imprisoned for an indefinite period.

In Nazi Germany, officials who tortured or executed the Jews, Gypsies and the Communists in concentration camps were tried for crimes against humanity after the Nazi regime came to an end. The argument of these officials was that they simply obeyed the orders of higher authorities. In case of refusal, they would have been condemned and punished by the government. Therefore, whether state officials should obey or refuse orders against human rights remains an unanswered question.

Hannah Arendt in her book Eichmann in Jerusalem discusses how Adolph Eichmann was tried on charges of killing the Jews and his response was that he did so according to the law of the state therefore he could not be held responsible for the massacre of the Jews.

In the medieval period, it was believed that criminals, dissidents and heretics can be reformed by severe punishment. Therefore, it was customary to torture such people in public not only as a warning to others but to create terror and fear in the society as well. It was customary that the man who was tortured was carried all the way through the main streets of the city to show people his fate as a warning. On a raised platform, the executioner either sliced his hands, feet and other parts of his body or broke his bones after binding him to a wheel. Another way of torture was known as the pillory, which consisted of hinged wooden boards with holes through which the head and / or his limbs were inserted and the boards were locked together to secure the captive. Pillories were set up to hold and humiliate petty criminals in public places like marketplaces and crossroads.

During the Roman period, the common criminals were crucified as a means of execution as well as humiliation. After crushing the slave rebellion of Spartacus, 20,000 slaves were crucified by the Romans.

The culture of torture was continued by the Church when it instituted the Inquisition to try heretics and enemies. Torture was used to elicit confessions from the victims. The institution used various instruments to torture those who were condemned. When Galileo was tried by the Inquisition, he was shown some of these instruments to force him to confess his sin. In order to escape from the horrible punishment, he accepted his mistake and recognised the religious views of the Church. It was the practice of the Inquisition that after confession, the condemned man was handed over to secular authorities to burn him at stake.

In case of Pakistan, torture is used not only by the state, but also by non-state actors. Torture has become so widespread in our society that it is accepted as a daily routine of life and there is no resistance against it.

Sadly, torture continues despite the progress of human civilisation. The question is: how long it would continue to crush, subdue and eliminate people because their ideas, views and way of life are different?

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, May 10th, 2015
http://www.dawn.com/news/1180746/pas...rial-by-ordeal
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  #22  
Old Sunday, May 24, 2015
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Understanding Aurangzeb

Being a repository of past events, history preserves the record of those individuals who played an important role in shaping the history of their time and are resurrected and used from time to time by politicians to accomplish their interests. In the subcontinent, Akbar and Aurangzeb contributed significantly in creating social and political orders, although both were antithetical to each other.

Akbar was a believer of Sulh-i-kul (peace with all), tolerant to followers of all religions. He made attempts to cut off cultural relations with Central Asia and Indianise the Mughal court by adopting Indian customs, traditions and festivals. On the other hand, Aurangzeb tried to subvert this policy and Islamise the Mughal State by introducing Islamic provisions.

The role of these two emperors was analysed critically during the colonial period and in the process of the freedom struggle. When in the 1920s Indian history was communalised, Aurangzeb was considered as an orthodox Muslim ruler of India who alienated his Hindu subjects through his religious policies. As a result, he became a hero for the Muslim community of India, admired for being the man who restored the prestige of Islam, defending it against opposing forces. This process picked up pace when the two-nation theory became a cornerstone of the Pakistan movement.

After the Partition in 1947, Pakistani historians supporting state ideology in the two-nation theory reconstructed the historical narrative by critically examining Akbar and Aurangzeb. I.H. Qureshi condemned Akbar and his religious policy as being against the interest of the Muslims of India. He accused Akbar of being the major cause of the downfall of the Mughal empire as he had granted concessions to the Hindus thereby alienating the support of the Muslims. To promote the image of Aurangzeb and to popularise his policies, ‘Alamgir Day’ was observed on May 3, 1965 under the patronage of Dairah-i-Muin-al-Marif.

In his lecture on Aurangzeb, Moinul Haq, Secretary Pakistan Historical Society, stated that “the Indian and Western historians had tried to create a wrong impression by wrong interpretation of the benign policies of Aurangzeb Alamgir, which he had initiated for the welfare of the people and the progress of his empire … it was not true that Jizyah was a poll tax or that its incidence was heavy. This twist was given by the so-called impartial Indian and Western historians to taint the reputation of Aurangzeb who was also a worker for restoring the Islamic ideal of life.”

Pakistani historians tried to make Aurangzeb a model for Pakistani politicians. There are several instances where Aurangzeb shrewdly twisted religion for his own political interests. For example, Dara Shikoh was not executed for being a political rival but as an apostate, based on a fatwa which was issued by the ulema to suit the interests of the emperor.

Once some Hindu and Muslims prisoners were brought before the qazi of the court, who issued a fatwa that the Hindus would be released if they were converted to Islam, while the Muslim prisoners would be kept imprisoned. When Aurangzeb found out about it, he reprimanded the qazi for issuing a fatwa based on Hanafi jurisprudence, while there were other schools of thought which he could have consulted. When the qazi realised that the emperor wanted to execute the prisoners, he researched a valid reason for execution by studying other schools of religious jurisprudence and re-issued the fatwa ordering the execution of the prisoners.

On the one hand Aurangzeb demolished temples, while on the other he granted financial aid to the Hindus, Sikhs and Jain for their temples. Whether to favour other religions or to oppose them depended on the prevailing political conditions. For example, in order to ensure the support of his Hindu subjects in South India where he stayed 17 years, he did not impose Jizya.

When the ulema raised objections on the employment of Shias and Hindus in important offices of the state, Aurangzeb asserted that politics and religion were two separate entities. He ignored the ulema’s disapproval on not marrying his daughters according to the Islamic tradition, his attack on the Muslim state of Deccan and execution of Dara on religious grounds; however, he banned music, ‘un-Islamic’ celebrations and reduced court expenses to demonstrate his piousness, despite which he failed to reform the Mughal society that was entrenched in corruption and debauchery.

It seems that Pakistani politicians have been following the policy of Aurangzeb by politicising religion and exploiting people in its name. From Liaquat Ali Khan to the present leaders, religion has been used to promote the self-interest of politicians and to hide their crimes.

Through his policy of Islamisation, Ziaul-Haq changed the whole fabric of Pakistani society but like Aurangzeb, the Islamisation failed to reform the society. When a nation adopts a culture that does not suit the relevant times, it leads the whole nation into disorder and chaos.

Adopting Aurangzeb as a model is hardly a good policy as it blocks the process of enlightenment and progress. Our society needs a policy of tolerance and pluralism, not a culture of intolerance and extremism. Nations make mistakes when they do not study history in its true perspective.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, May 24th, 2015
http://www.dawn.com/news/1183540/pas...ding-aurangzeb
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  #23  
Old Thursday, June 04, 2015
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Past present: Dead language

Language is a repository of social and cultural values and traditions. It reflects ideas, concepts, sensibilities and the mindset of a society. Literature in a certain language indicates its richness and dynamism. If a language fails to produce any original literature and there is no addition of new vocabulary and terminology, it shows how stagnant the society is.

It is the responsibility of intellectuals to enrich a language with new ideas and create linguistic consciousness in a nation. Linguistic nationalism plays an important role in uniting scattered cultural groups and shaping them into a nation.

After the French Revolution of 1789, the revolutionary government made French the national language and forcibly wiped out other languages in order to unify all linguistic groups. Another example is of Germany which was divided into many small principalities and petty states until its intellectuals and thinkers made efforts to create a national consciousness by enriching the German language with new ideas. Successful in their endeavours, the Germans not only became united politically but also linguistically.

Simple, unintimidating words and technology might help maximise the potential of Urdu as an academic language
The German language produced rich literature and replaced the hegemony of the French which was spoken by the elite classes. The same policy was adopted by Arab intellectuals who made the Arabic language rich and powerful enough to consolidate Arab nationalism which integrates all Arabic-speaking countries.

In the subcontinent, the Bengali intellectuals transformed Bengali into an academic language. The intellectuals play an important role in developing languages by contributing new thoughts and ideas thereby providing a linguistic identity to the nation.

Another factor which improves the capacity of a language is when important books from other languages are translated. In Japan’s early period of modernisation, the works of Western intellectuals were translated into Japanese. Eventually, they produced their own original work in social as well as national sciences.

Similarly, in Iran, the translation of Western literature, history, philosophy and science was done very professionally. Also, the Iranian writers published their original contributions in every field of knowledge which made Persian a highly academic and scientific language.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the first scholar who made an attempt to make Urdu prose simple and academic. His tradition was followed by his companions but his style was not continued. Abul Kalam Azad adopted a heavily ‘Arabicised’ style of writing.
In this perspective, when we study the history of Urdu we find that after ending the supremacy of the Persian language, it emerged as a language of the elite classes of North India. It was heavily dominated by Persian and Arabic words which were unfamiliar to the common man. Moreover, it became the language of poetry and religious ideas. Its prose was so complicated that it was difficult to understand the content. The writer’s emphasis was on displaying language writing skills at the cost of using unfamiliar words and terms. As a result the narrative of the early period Urdu prose does not have ideas but only the charm of colourful and poetic language.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the first scholar who made an attempt to make Urdu prose simple and academic. His tradition was followed by his companions but his style was not continued. Abul Kalam Azad adopted a heavily ‘Arabicised’ style of writing.

Another effort to make Urdu an academic language was made by the Usmania University, Hyderabad, India, but it discontinued after the partition in 1947. The Usmania University as well as Anjuman-i-Tarraqi-i-Urdu managed to translate important literature from European languages into Urdu but in the absence of creative literature, the efforts remained ineffective in making Urdu academic.

When the British government founded universities in India and made English the medium of instruction, the newly-educated class adopted it as a tool to express their ideas; therefore instead of writing in Urdu, the scholars chose English as a medium. Urdu had failed to compete with English and was confined only to being the language of poetry and religion and could not expand its scope to become scientific and academic.

After the independence of Pakistan, although Urdu was declared as a national language and no efforts have been made to improve it and create academic and scientific literature in Urdu. The National Language Authority, Islamabad and the University of Karachi have published several translations of scientific and technical terminologies but being unfamiliar, they cannot be understood by readers.

According to Mehmood Mirza, there was a time in the 1950s or ’60s, when Urdu could have been made rich and fertile by translating Western literature. However, at this stage it has become nearly impossible because of the knowledge and information explosion.

In developed countries, hundreds of books are published daily on every topic, therefore it is no longer feasible perhaps to translate them all into Urdu. As a result, knowledge in Urdu language has become stagnant. In order to familiarise ourselves with new ideas and concepts, we have to read new, published material in English or European languages. Under these circumstances, Urdu has lost its opportunity to become a scientific and academic language.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, May 31st, 2015
http://www.dawn.com/news/1184951
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  #24  
Old Wednesday, June 10, 2015
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Past Present: Digging Deep

Although the discipline of archaeology is very old and the Greek historian Thucydides also mentioned old (and ruined) cites of past civilisations, the discipline became modernised and technical in the 18th century when archaeologists excavated a number of ancient civilisations that were buried beneath the earth.

The knowledge of the past extended the domain of history and enriched it with new material that helped society understand the evolutionary process of civilisation.

In the early period, archaeologists were mostly concerned with excavate palaces, temples and mausoleums of rulers and aristocrats. The reason was that such discoveries thrilled the world as the royal monuments displayed the grandeur and glory of past empires and rulers. Moreover, the archaeologists discovered gold and silver and valuable artefacts of the ruling classes which provided enough material (and incentive) for historians to construct the history of the past.

The study of social history has become more popular in recent years
When the tomb of Tutankhaman, the Egyptian Pharaoh was excavated, archaeologists found his treasures which consisted of his crown, gold sarcophagus, vases, jars and other items of daily use. The same process was followed after the discovery of the Mesopotamian, Persian, Greek, Roman and Indus valley civilisations. Archaeologists systematically listed the artefacts found on the sites. Most of these findings are displayed in the different museums of the world.

After exhausting the excavation and research of the royal monuments of the past, the archaeologists turned their attention from the ruling classes to the common people.

It was difficult to excavate the dwellings and houses of common people as they were made of mud bricks and lost form eventually, becoming mounds of earth and leaving behind only a few traces of their existence. However, there were other sources available to construct the history and culture of common people.

For instance, the tools and instruments which archaeologists found in excavations helped them to construct the history of peasants and artisans. Paintings and inscriptions on the walls of temples and pyramids in Egypt became a rich source of information about the daily lives of common people in the ancient times. Some depict the social and cultural life of common people like peasants busy cultivating land, labourers building monuments, while others portray festivals and rituals.

Ancient literature, consisting mostly of epic poems and legends, is yet another source of information. For example, the epic of Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, narrates the glimpses of the life of common people and their response to the rulers. This legend was found as a cuneiform tablet and is considered one of the oldest works of literature from Mesopotamia.

In the early period, archaeologists were mostly concerned with excavate palaces, temples and mausoleums of rulers and aristocrats. The reason was that such discoveries thrilled the world as the royal monuments displayed the grandeur and glory of past empires and rulers.
Located on the west bank of the Nile, Deir el-Medina, an ancient Egyptian village was excavated in 1922 by a team of archaeologists. The excavations resulted in one of the most comprehensively documented accounts of community life in the ancient world that spans almost 400 years.

Since the houses of the village were not badly damaged, it became possible to construct the daily lives of the villagers. According to this construction, the peasants devoted their time to cultivating land. The women were engaged mostly in domestic work, looked after cattle, ground wheat and cooked food, and in their spare time would engage in weaving and spinning. The houses were built with mud bricks and consisted of one or two rooms with open courtyards. It appeared that the inmates either slept on the roof or in the courtyard. One can also deduce from the findings that the inhabitants of the village cooperated with each other and celebrated seasonal festivals with music and dance.

In the subcontinent, some evidence has also been found of a village near Fatehpur Sikri whose inhabitants were workers who built the capital city of Akbar. Perhaps it would take some time to retrieve the traces of their daily life. These inhabitants must have been artisans who contributed to the fascinating buildings of the city which are still intact and tell the story of their glorious past.

The new trend in archaeology is to unfold and discover the life of ordinary people of the past which is the beginning of shedding light on their contribution in history. In historiography, history from below is becoming popular as are the attempts of archaeologists to retrieve the history of common people whose contribution so far remained unacknowledged.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, June 7th, 2015
http://www.dawn.com/news/1186341
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  #25  
Old Saturday, June 20, 2015
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The lost art


Conversation is an art which is linked with creative literature, art and politics in the society, and develops and refines with the process of civilisation. It indicates the richness of the language with its humour and through the use of appropriate words as well as the expression of a person that appeals to the audience.

Miller Stephen in his book Conversation: a History of a Declining Art, presents an interesting history from the earliest time to the present day. According to him, during the period of hunting and gathering when language was not fully developed, signs and symbols were used to convey messages. As settlements came about and people gathered together, the vocabulary of the language increased and epic poems and stories were composed.

The earliest form of writing was in the form of a dialogue. We have a specimen from the Sumerian period (5000 BC), which is a dialogue between a servant and a master. The servant demands that he should be treated on the basis of equality and the master responds by saying that he was inferior and owned by the master, therefore he had a right even to kill him. The servant’s reply was that as the master was dependent on the servant for getting his work done and would not survive for more than three days without the servant.

We find the dialogue form in the classical Indian as well as Greek literature. Socrates (d.399 BC) popularised it in Athens, when he questioned people on serious philosophical ideas in simple words, urging them to respond. This type of dialogue involved both Socrates and his audience to think and investigate the moral values of the day. It was a Greek tradition that in the symposium the guests debated, discussed and delivered speeches on various topics. Plato (c. 348BCE) also adopted the dialogue form in The Republic, which was written around 380 BC.

What has been celebrated from the salons of 18th-century Paris to the present day chat over coffee is increasingly being stifled, distorted or replaced by superficial digital blabber
The Romans inherited the Greek tradition of conversation in their cultural life. Cicero (d.44BC) in one of his letters written to his son advised him on the art of conversation and how to express his views.

In the medieval age when religion dominated the daily life of people, they were not given space to speak on different subjects openly. This confined the art of conversation only to propagate religious teachings and consequently reduced philosophical expressions and literary creativity. During the Renaissance when the domination of the church diminished and gave way to freedom of speech, the art of conversation began to flourish in Europe.

A number of books were published on the etiquettes of conversation, and in Paris the institution of the salons emerged. Generally patronised by influential women, the salons were gatherings of leading writers, artists, politicians, intellectuals and musicians.

Rouseau (d.1778), Denis Diderot (d.1784), Montesquieu (d.1755) and other famous intellectuals conversed with each other on art, literature, philosophy and politics. The English writers such as Edward Gibbon (d.1794) and Adam Smith (d.1790) also visited the Salons of Paris, contributing largely to the cultural life of the city. On the other hand, in England, coffee houses became the centre of intellectual activities. The first coffee house was established in 1650 at Oxford and soon became popular so that a 100 coffee houses mushroomed in London. They were favourite places for writers, artists, and scientists, especially Dr Samuel Johnson (d.1784) and James Boswell (d.1795) who were regular visitors at different coffee houses in London. After paying a penny for a cup of coffee, the customer could read newspapers and converse with his friends for hours in a cosy environment.

Another institution which was also a meeting place for friends or people of similar interests was the club. There were different types of clubs for different groups of people and women were not always allowed to become members and hence came to be known as gentlemen’s clubs. These clubs provided space for its members to meet, drink, dine and converse on the topics of interest.

In the modern period, the art of conversation declined because of technological inventions. When radio became a part of life, people preferred to stay at home and listen to the broadcast which consisted of news, music, drama and political speeches. With the invention of TV, social life changed completely. It became customary to watch TV along with family members and not to go out to meet with friends and relatives. Recently, mobile phones and the internet captivate people within a room. With lesser opportunities to sit together and converse, vocabulary and expression have been affected.

The art of conversation was also affected in countries dominated by dictators and ideological parties. In Stalin’s Russia and Hitler’s Germany people were very careful not to speak anything that would be reported by the secret police and held against them. In an atmosphere of fear and terror, peoples’ conversations become dull and barren.

Presently, we are experiencing the same rigidity in our society because of religious extremism where peoples’ emotions are charged on the slightest misunderstanding. We experience the decline of conversation in talk shows on TV, where participants instead of debate and discussion, fight against each other about their differing views. There is a distortion of language by mixing English words and sentences which completely transform the structure of Urdu language and make it incomprehensible to common people. Generally, the motive of the conversation is to defeat the opponent by speaking loudly and not allowing him to speak.

Therefore instead of dialogue it becomes a noisy monologue. The lack of tolerance and refinement spoils the beauty of language and the art of conversation.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, June 14th, 2015
http://www.dawn.com/news/1187558
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  #26  
Old Tuesday, June 23, 2015
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Past Present: Dara’s makeover


Generally, history remembers the victor and forgets the vanquished. However, in some cases to project the image of the winner, his qualities are highlighted while his opponents are downgraded for being inexperienced, incapable and incompetent. In other cases, the loser is projected as energetic and talented but nevertheless unable to defeat his opponent who might have triumphed solely through his determination. In the third case, the loser is completely ignored or treated ignominiously and fails to achieve a place in history.

Contemporary historians present Aurangzeb as a brave, dashing and shrewd politician and diplomat. One who could foresee the advent of the civil war and therefore made sure that he was prepared for it by maintaining good relations with influential Mughal nobles and winning over his younger brother Murad, who was a valiant and dauntless warrior.

On the other hand, Dara Shikoh does not get favourably treated in the chronicles of history as he lost the battle of Samugarh and is criticised for being arrogant, vain, inexperienced and lacking expertise in diplomacy. He heavily relied on the support of his father, Shah Jahan who wanted him to be his successor. When historians describe the battle of Samugarh (1658), Aurangzeb emerges as the man who understood the art of warfare and showed his determination by chaining the feet of his elephant so as to stay in the thick of the battle and inspire his soldiers. On the other hand, Dara failed to understand the strategy on the battlefield and fell short of matching Aurangzeb’s tactics. This defeat in the battlefield proved disastrous for Dara Shikoh.

As societies evolve, heroes become villains and vice versa
Modern historiography, however, developed with the emergence of democracy, liberalism and pluralism, thereby changing traditional narratives of history. In modern history-writing religious extremism is condemned and criticised as being detrimental to the progress of a society. Under these new milieus, Mughal history has been reinterpreted by modern historians and the image of Dara Shikoh which was previously damaged by historians has been revived. According to Hegel, an epoch is only re-evaluated when it finally ends hence with all the sources that are now available, it has become possible for historians to re-assess the Mughal past. The entire reign of Aurangzeb and the impact of his orthodoxy which lead to the disintegration and decay of the Mughal Empire have been taken into consideration. Historians have compared both Aurangzeb and Dara Shikoh on the basis of their ideas and thoughts.

Dara Shikoh attracts favourable public opinion because Aurangzeb, his younger brother not only mistreated him but finally had him executed. Bernier, the French traveller, who visited India from 1652 to 1658, was an eyewitness to Dara’s pathetic condition.
As per modern documentation of history, Aurangzeb caused a break-down of the society by deviating from the Sulh-i-Kul policy of Akbar which harmonised the Hindus and Muslim culturally and politically. Aurangzeb’s use of religion for his political ends alienated Hindus, who so far had supported the Mughal Empire. On the other hand, Dara Shikoh is depicted as a liberal who believed in pluralism and religious tolerance. A devotee of mysticism and the author of Majma-ul-Bahrain and Safina-tul-Auliya, he enjoyed the company of Sufis, yogis and saints. On the basis of these qualities, some historians have speculated that in case of his succession to the throne, the decay and downfall of the Mughal Empire may not have happened and it might have flourished longer.

Dara Shikoh attracts favourable public opinion because Aurangzeb, his younger brother not only mistreated him but finally had him executed. Bernier, the French traveller, who visited India from 1652 to 1658, was an eyewitness to Dara’s pathetic condition. In an account of when Aurangzeb decided to parade Dara as a prisoner in the streets of Dehli, Bernier wrote:

“Dara was now seen seated on a miserable and worn-out animal … the crowed assembled upon this disgraceful occasion was immense; and everywhere I observed the people weeping, and lamenting the fate of Dara in the most touching language. I took my station in one of the most conspicuous parts of the city, in the midst of the largest bazaar; was mounted on a good horse, and accompanied by two servants and two intimate friends. From every quarter I heard piercing and distressing shrieks, for the Indian people have a very tender heart; men, women, and children wailing as if some mighty calamity had happened to them.”

Bernier also wrote that Malik Jivan Khan, the man who betrayed Dara and handed him over to Aurangzeb as a prisoner, was the target of people’s wrath and they cursed and abused him. According to Bernier, “Gion-kan rode near the wretched Dara; and the abusive and indignant cries that vociferated as the traitor moved along were absolutely deafening. I observed some fakirs and several poor people throw stones at the infamous Pathan …”

The account of Bernier is corroborated by Khafi Khan’s description in Muntakhab-ul-lubab which shows the popularity of Dara among the ordinary people, who were moved by his miserable condition and agonised by the fate of the prince. Though Dara Shikoh is defeated politically, he wins his case as a liberal, secular, and tolerant prince. He is now symbolised, like Akbar, as a champion of peace and harmony. History may forget Dara as one of the ‘vanquished’ but will continue to remember him as a scholar and an outstanding figure.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, June 21st, 2015
http://www.dawn.com/news/1189423
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  #27  
Old Sunday, June 28, 2015
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Default Past present: The exodus of Sindhi Hindus

Past present: The exodus of Sindhi Hindus

Concerned and rather depressed about the communal situation in Sindh, Koli, a Hindu friend of mine from Hyderabad called me up when in 2014 some miscreants burnt a Hindu temple in Larkana and anti-Hindu riots followed in Badin. He told me that the Hindus had always regarded Sindh as the land of Sufis, where peace and harmony prevailed among all religious communities. But this development shattered all their feelings of security and safety in the land of their ancestors.

There was a disturbing pain and agony in his voice. He told me that his ancestors had been living in Sindh way before the Arab conquest. His concern was that the incident which had transpired was not the outburst of some immediate cause but a gradual development against the Hindu community. On analysis, one finds that there are several reasons that fuel the anti-Hindu sentiments, a major cause being our textbooks that are responsible for creating prejudice and hatred against Hindus.

In our textbooks, attempts are being made to highlight the social, cultural and religious differences between the Hindus and the Muslims but no efforts are made to bring about harmony and integration. For example, it is asserted that the struggle for Pakistan was not only against the British but also against the domination of the Hindus. The authors of these textbooks further mark the differences in dress, food, rituals, ceremonies and festivals. One author goes to the extent that he has even classified trees and animals as Hindus and Muslims. According to him, the peepal and burgad (banyan) are Hindu trees, while the date and olive are Muslim trees! Not just that but he rendered the cow a Hindu, while the camel and horse as Muslim. The result of such textbooks is damaging and creates hatred between these two communities, leaving no space to meet on the basis of peace and love.

Our textbooks as well as other history books completely ignore the role of Sindhi Hindus before partition. When the British conquered Sindh in 1843, the rule of the Talpurs came to an end. The Hindu community of Sindh took full advantage of the political change and started to learn modern values and traditions and transformed their community. Since most Sindhi Hindus belonged to the middle classes, they adopted a modern, colonial education. Under the influence of the Hindu community, cities of Sindh such as Shikarpur, Larkana, Sukkur, Hyderabad and Karachi were transformed on the basis of modern city planning. They built schools, colleges, public buildings such as gardens, libraries, public halls, hospitals and clubs, changing the entire social and cultural milieu of Sindh. The process of cultural development seized in 1947, after communal riots broke out in some cities of Sindh. Disappointed and disillusioned, the educated and progressive Sindhi Hindus migrated to India en masse leaving behind a small section of the Hindu population in Tharparkar and other small towns.

After the independence of Bangladesh, anti-Indian sentiment intensified as a result of which the Hindus of Sindh were victimised. Periodic incidents of religious extremism that followed have further deteriorated their condition. Feeling insecure and unprotected, they are in a dilemma as to where to go.

Sadly, in a country where the state is not neutral in the matters of religion, religious discrimination works to disintegrate the nation. When Pakistani nationhood is defined on the basis of religion, it excludes the nonMuslim communities from its fold. The question is should non-Muslim communities in Pakistan be included into the broader definition of nationhood or excluded and treated as second rate citizens and their talents and services disregarded?

It is high time that we should learn lessons from history and adopt policies to unite all minorities, religious or ethnic, as one nation. We must correct our text books and recognise the contribution of Sindhi Hindus before partition so that the memories and the heritage that they left behind is not erased.
Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, June 28th, 2015

http://www.dawn.com/news/1190552/pas...-sindhi-hindus
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Old Sunday, July 05, 2015
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Default 05.07.2015

Past present: On good terms

The African continent suffered immensely at the hands of European imperialist powers who destroyed and plundered its resources, enslaved its people and forced them to work in the North and South Americas or on the great plantations of the Caribbean Islands. As they occupied the territory and ruled over the tribes, the locals were subjected to political exploitation and economic deprivation. However, they learnt the value of liberty, independence and self-respect and three African leaders emerged to play a historical role to retrieve their lost dignity and honour.

In 1791, the half-a-million population of Indian slaves from the French colony Saint Domingo revolted against their white master. The revolution which was an indirect result of the events that occurred in France in 1789 differed from the French and Russian Revolutions because it was initiated by the most exploited population of the slaves, who were neither influenced by an enlightenment movement of thinkers and philosophers nor had an ideological base or ambitious revolutionary parties which could lead them to victory. These slaves derived their political consciousness as a result of exploitation, degradation and the brutal treatment of their masters. It is a wonder that such a community could produce a dynamic leader who laid the ragtag army of slaves to fight against the most powerful imperial power of the day.

Toussaint L’Ouverture (d.1803) was a slave who served as a coachman to his white master and joined the revolutionary army as a soldier and later rose to higher ranks. He successfully fought against the French army, defeated them and declared the island as the Republic of Haiti.

After the successful liberation from exploitation, he now faced the challenge of building a post-revolutionary society. Toussaint had fully realised that the former African slave population was cut off from its cultural roots and had become fully absorbed in French customs, values and traditions.

Therefore, his vision was to build a society after reconciliation with the whites, the Mulattos and the Africans. Therefore, when he asked some white families to come back and take charge of their plantation, this policy of his angered and disappointed his fellow revolutionaries. To them, the object of revolution was not only to get liberation from slavery but also to occupy the land on which they toiled. While Toussaint was determined to follow his reconciliation policy, his cousin, who was a prominent leader, raised his voice against it. Toussaint ordered his execution but his policy of reconciliation failed when he was arrested by the French and sent to France where after languishing for a few years in prison, he died.

After the departure of Toussaint, the revolutionary forces against the French abandoned the policy of reconciliation, expelled the white population and distributed land among the slaves. Tahiti became a black republic which inspired the revolutionary leaders of South America. Simon Bolivar, the great, radical leader once took refuge in Tahiti against the Spanish forces. However, Tahiti experienced different political systems and could not become stabilised and prosperous. It faced the opposition from its neighbours, the great powers of Europe and the United States. It retains its independence despite internal and external challenges.

Another important African leader is Robert Mugabe, who fought against British colonialism and liberated his country which was known as Rhodesia. During the colonial period, a large number of white people settled in this country and ruled over the majority of Africans, occupying vast tracts of landed property and enjoying privileges and concessions as rulers.

After independence, its name was changed from Rhodesia to Zimbabwe. A section of the white population, feeling uncomfortable with the African rule, left the country and returned to England. Mugabe and his government did not follow the policy of reconciliation but allowed the local population to occupy the agricultural land, but had tolerance for those whites who decided to stay back in the country. This policy created an uproar in the West and Mugabe was accused of being a tyrant and dictator. The West boycotted diplomatic relations with Zimbabwe, which is depicted as a failed nation. Still it is surviving against all opposition and trying to end the white hegemony.
Taking yet another example, Nelson Mandela (d.2014) was released from prison after 27 years and elected as the first Black President of South Africa. Although, he and the black population of South Africa suffered humiliation and insult during the Apartheid government, once he assumed power, he and his party decided not to take any revenge against the misdeeds of the white rulers, but strengthen the political government after adopting the reconciliation policy. This democratic revolution did not bring radical changes as a result of a democratic revolution. Though the Apartheid came to an end, the difference between the whites and the blacks continues socially and economically. However, the black population believes that slowly and gradually without any bloodshed, it would replace the white population and control all the state institutions. Nelson Mandela was successful in his policy of reconciliation, while Toussaint failed because of the French betrayal.

Both the leaders of Haitian Revolution and Robert Mugabe had no choice but to adopt the policy of separation to satisfy those who suffered at the hands of the white people. Their reward was the success of the revolution and independence from colonialism. In case of South Africa, the blacks displaced the whites without breaking away from or replacing the old institutions. It will take the black population some time to be rewarded fully for their independence.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, July 5th, 2015
http://www.dawn.com/news/1192388/pas...-on-good-terms
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Old Sunday, July 12, 2015
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Default Past present: by MUBARAK ALI

Bow to the king

In times of dictatorship, it is customary to accuse an individual for damaging, harming and destabilising the society, while ignoring those who support, collaborate and cooperate with him to usurp power, consolidate political authority and implement his agenda. Take Adolf Hitler for example: he is accused of genocide of the Jews, setting up concentration camps, torture, imprisonment, execution of his opponents and implementation of the purification of the Arian race. But truth be told, Hitler was a product of his time, where racist ideology, anti-Semitism, and intense German nationalism and patriotism were prevalent.
It was a time when European nations dominated the world and its resources. European intellectuals as well as common people believed in the ideology of supremacy of the white race. Arthur de Gobineau (d.1882) too wrote a book, In Equality of the Races, which became a Bible for the believers of racism. In Germany, the idea of purity of the Teutonic race that belonged to the Arians was popular. Houston Stewart Chamberlain (d.1927), the author of The Foundation of Nineteenth Century and the champion of racism, was an old man, sitting on a wheel chair, when he met Hitler in 1927 (who was not yet in power but had become a popular leader of the Nazi Party). Chamberlain warmly grabbed Hitler’s hand and told him that in him he had found a person who could establish the purity and supremacy of Arian race, therefore, he could now die in peace and tranquillity.

Anti-Jewish feelings were not new in Europe but were deeply rooted not only in Germany but in other European countries too. Philosophers and thinkers derided the presence of Jewish people in German society as pollutants who could damage the qualities of the German race. The concept of the German state was repeatedly strengthened by historians, philosophers and thinkers. According to Hegel, the state was the only institution through which a society could fulfil its freedom. He believed that the German state had the blessings of God and through it Germany would achieve greatness. Under this political, social and philosophical milieu, Hitler assumed power in 1933 democratically, but gradually he demolished all democratic institutions and became a dictator.

However, he was not alone. He had supporters, who helped him in transforming society on the basis of Nazi ideology. He was very popular among the masses. Whenever he addressed the crowd, people hysterically raised slogans in his favour and express their support to his cause. When the Nazi party was organised, youth, women, children and workers demonstrated in the cities with Nazi banners, singing patriotic songs; one could see nationalist emotions reflecting from their faces and their love for ‘Fuhrer’.

Most intellectuals and professors, who did not agree with the Nazi ideology, left Germany for other European countries and the US. Some intellectuals like Martin Heideggar (d.1976) and Carl Schmitt (d.1985) supported the Nazi Ideology. Therefore, when Hitler and his party followed the policy of Nazification and took Germany to World War II, German society paid a heavy price for it. The dictatorship, the Nazi ideology and the dream to rule over Europe came to an end after Germany’s defeat in the war. However, Hitler was not alone responsible for the disaster that befell Germany, his comrades and associates were equally responsible.

In Pakistan, it is also customary to accuse General Ziaul Haq of transforming and turning Pakistan from bad to worse, but he was not singlehandedly responsible for implementing the policy of Islamisation and the Ideology of Pakistan. He inherited the process of Islamisation from 1949, when the Objectives Resolution was passed, which was further promoted by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto after making Islam, the state religion.

Gen Zia completed those projects which were initiated by the PPP government. Moreover, he was not alone but fully supported by political parties, politicians, intellectuals and the ulema. Gen Zia is accused of damaging and harming the society but those who cooperated with him are spared the accusations. The politicians who were in his majlis-ishoora joined other political parties after the fall of Zia and became the champion of democracy. Therefore to judge and assess a dictatorship correctly, it is important to judge all those parties, groups and institutions, who were the part and parcel of the system and they should not be exonerated but condemned along with the dictator who caused an irreparable loss to the society.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, July 12th, 2015
http://www.dawn.com/news/1193974/pas...ow-to-the-king
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Old Wednesday, July 22, 2015
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Default July 19, 2015

Refined argumentation


The ‘agora’ or the public square in Ancient Athens was a place of knowledge: people of the city would assemble here, discuss social, political and economic affairs of their daily lives, and create a bond of mutual understanding. It would be located in the centre of the city with shops and government offices, and had an open space for public meetings. Some of the buildings of the agora contained porticoes, under the shade of which intellectuals and thinkers discussed philosophical issues.

One of the ancient schools of philosophy known as ‘Stoicism’ emerged under the leadership of Zeno (d.c.262BC), and later became a popular philosophical movement in the Greek and Roman empires. Zeno met his followers under one of the porticoes or porch, which was known in Greek as ‘stoas’, from which the words ‘stoicism’ and ‘stoic’ are derived.

Socrates (d.399BC) came to the agora every morning to meet young people and discuss social issues and philosophy. Women and minors were not allowed to visit the agora. Therefore, Socrates had to go outside the agora to meet the youth of Athens and to talk to them about his philosophical ideas.

Debates and discussion in public squares have sometimes altered the course of history
Later, as time passed, the concept of the agora disappeared due to encroachment and construction of new buildings. However, not long ago, the Greek government demolished nearly 400 buildings to enable the construction of the agora again.

The Romans also had their own public space which was known as the ‘forum’ — the centre of public activity. People would gather there for various forms of entertainment. Sometimes, there was a gladiator fight or musicians would entertain people by playing different musical instruments. There would also be theatrical shows to entertain people. At the time of elections, public voting would take place here. There was a place known as ‘rostrum’ from where politicians would deliver speeches.

When Julius Caesar was killed, his corpse was brought to the forum, where Brutus (d.42BC), his assassin, justified his act of killing. Mark Antony (d.30 BC) on the other hand eulogised his patron, using rhetoric to manipulate the commoners to help him to punish the assassins. Upon hearing which, the people of Rome turned into a murderous mob, ready to kill the assassins, while Brutus and his accomplices fled.

Years later, Roman emperors built new forums and used them for their own propaganda. For example, the emperor Trajan (d.117AD) erected a pillar in the forum, depicting his victories over his enemies. Another emperor Commodious also erected a pillar which showed the military achievements of his father Marcus Aurelius (d.180AD).

The other cities of the Roman Empire also followed the same tradition of having a forum as a public space. It became a unique institution, providing an opportunity for people to participate in the political and social affairs of the city. When politicians addressed them, they would question them and in case of incompetence, the public would accuse them of failure. In a way, it took the form of a people’s parliament, where the crowd played an active role.

During the Mughal period when Shah Jahan (r.1628-1658) built the new city of Shahjahanabad, a public square known as ‘Chandni chowk’ was constructed. Sir Syed Ahmad (d.1898), in his book entitled Asar-al-Sanadid gives details of the chowk. According to his account, there was a Nahar-i-Bahisht (canal from the paradise) in the middle of the chowk. On both sides were trees to make the environment pleasant. There were shops selling a variety of merchandise which the traders brought from all over the world.

On the roadside, artists sat to paint portraits for the public, storytellers would narrate thrilling stories, which were enjoyed by small or large gatherings. Jugglers entertained the public with wonderful tricks and in the evening, the Mughal princesses would arrive for a stroll in the enchanting atmosphere of the chowk.

Although Chandni Chowk still exists, it has lost its past beauty and glory. At present, it is so crowded that it is difficult to even walk there. Neither is there a canal from paradise nor trees; neither artists nor storytellers or jugglers. The memory of the old Chandni Chowk lies in history books while in reality, the present has changed the past.

Today, there are many squares in the countries all over the world which play an important role in politics. For example, the Tiananmen Square of Beijing became famous when students gathered there and demanded for the establishment of democracy in China. The movement was brutally crushed by the Chinese government.

Recently, there were demonstrations and protests of people of Egypt in Tahrir Square of Cairo against the dictator Husni Mubarak. Their continuous struggle forced him to retire. In Istanbul at Taksim Square, the crowd protested against the corruption of the Erdogan government. There was time when the Red square of Moscow was famous for the annual parade of the army on the day of Revolution. In some countries, these public squares have played an important role in changing the government and consequently becoming a revolutionary symbol.

In Pakistan, since there are no such public squares, different groups of people protest in front of the press clubs which seemed to have replaced public squares.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, July 19th, 2015
Source: Past present: Refined argumentation
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