MUSLIM RENAISSANCE MOVEMENTS IN
INDO-PAK SUB-CONTINENT
A. MUJADDID ALF SANI
(Saviour of Islam During Second Millennium)
Shaikh Ahmed of Sirhind (1564-1624)
Born: 26-06-1564 Died: 15-12-1624
1. Background:
1.1. Akbar’s Din e Ilahi (reconciliation of religions: Islam and Hinduism + Christianity) adulterated Muslim polity, society and religion
1.2. Un-Islamic practices and beliefs introduced by Akbar & continued during Jahangir’s reign
2. Evils of Muslim Society:
2.1. Social: adulteration with socio-religious practices of Hinduism
2.2. Political: Sovereignty concept (zill-e-Ilahi) prostration
2.3. Spiritual / Ideological: Wahdat-ul-Wajud (Creator – creatures one)
3. Revival Movement:
3.1. He did not enter into direct political conflict with rulers but instead wrote letters to prominent personalities in Akbar’s (subsequently Jahangir’s) Court viz. Abdur Rehman Khan-e-Khanan, Khan-e-Azam Mirza Abdul Aziz, Mufti Sadr-e-Jahan – reminding them their religious duty
3.2. Sent disciples to different corners of India for preaching – basic concepts of Islam, shariah sunnah – to expose Akbar’s din-e-ilahi
3.3. In the court of Jahangir – raised voice against the practice of prostration – imprisoned in Gawaliar (1619-20) but later released and made religious advisor of Jahangir
3.4. In prison he converted many inmates to Islam and brought reformation among the Muslim prisoners
3.5. He preached true spirit of Islam among the troops of Mughal army; raised their moral and prepared them to perform their duties towards Islam and the State;
3.6. Ideological war –
3.6.1. Wahdat-ul-Wajud* (Unity of Wajud (Being): Creator – creatures one) – propounded by Ibn-al Arabi (1165-1240 AD - an Arab Muslim sufi mystic and philosopher); and
3.6.2. Wahdat-ul-Shahud* (Unity of Shahud (experience / feelings): Creator – creatures are one by experience / feeling but separate Beings) – propounded by Shaikh Alaud Daula Simnani (1261-1336 AD – an Irani opponent of Ibn-al Arabi) – but further propagated by Shaikh Ahmed in Indo-Pak.
*[For details visit:
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3.7. Mujaddid’s thought did not find much popularity in the sub-continent as:
3.7.1. Chishti traditions of Wahdat-ul-Wajud were too strong;
3.7.2. His theory of Wahdat-ul-Shahud was orthodox religious approach which gave set back to Sufis to create harmony between Hindus and Muslims.
4. Influence on the history of Muslim India:
4.1. First person who propounded the idea of Muslim nationalism in India
4.2. Advocate of Muslim separatism – distinctive image
4.3. Akbar’s heterodoxy –> Aurangzeb’s orthodoxy rather than laissez faire policy of Babur / Humanyun – gradual transformation -
4.4. Akbar was a liberal – Aurangzeb was a fundamentalist (imposed jizyah on non-Muslims)
4.5. The movement was taken forward by Shah Waliullah and Syed Ahmed Shaheed – ultimately head way to destination of Pakistan movement.
5. Conclusion
5.1. The movement restored Shariah;
5.2. Islam became a symbol of Muslim unity;
5.3. His movement influenced future movements and shaped the destiny of the Muslims of India;
B. SHAH WALIULLAH (1703-1762) /
[Qutbuddin Ahmed] Born: 21-02-1703
1. Background
1.1. Departure of Aurangzeb (1707) – adverse impacts on Mughal Empire + Muslims of India (their hegemony / dominance over Hindus / non-Muslims started waning)
1.2. Political ascendancy of Muslims under Aurangzeb vanished after him – impacted economic interests of Muslims
1.3. Muslim society was assimilating (absorbing) Hindu ideas / traditions / practices
1.4. Ignorance of the basic principles of Islam & conflicts over minute / insignificant details
1.5. Internal deterioration – sectarian differences (shias & sunnis)
2. Family / Spiritual Background
2.1. Born in 1703 to Shah Abdur Rahim – a theologian (religious / spiritual leader) and mystic (sufi) at Phulat (UP) – who endeavoured to reconcile the conflicting philosophies of theology and mysticism.
2.2. Successor of Mujaddid Alf Sani in preservation of religious belief and Muslim identity
3. Reformist Movement:
First of its kind - aimed at social, political, religious and economic reformation of the degenerated Muslim community in India.
3.1. Religious:
3.1.1. Sectarian differences – nobles grouped into ‘Turani’ and ‘Irani’ - euphemisms for Sunni and Shia – soldiers and common men were also affected.
3.1.2. His book ‘Izalat-ul-khifa an khilafat-il-khulafa’ ( ) removed misunderstandings between shias and sunnis.
3.1.3. Sunnis were divided on minute details of the interpretation of Quran and Sunnah. Minor issues created divisions in the society.
3.1.4. He adopted a balanced approach, translated Quran in Persian to make it understandable and wrote ‘al-fauz-u’l kabir fi usul-it-tafsir’ ( ) highlighted the broad principles for interpretation of Quran.
3.1.5. In order to create balance among four schools of (Sunnis) thought he wrote ‘al-insaf fi bayan sahib al ikhtilaf’ ( ).
3.1.6. Ijtihad (progressive interpretation of Islamic law) was vigorously adopted – in a society which had closed doors for further interpretation
3.1.7. He tried to reconcile the divergent views of Ibn-ul Arabi and Mujaddid Alf Sani on the concepts of Wahdat-ul-Wajud (Creator – creatures one) and Wahdat-ul-Shahud (Creator – creatures are separate).
3.2. Social:
3.2.1. Deep crisis of public morality and character in Muslim society – presented Islam in a rational manner and urged Muslim masses to mould their lives accordingly.
3.3. Economic:
3.3.1. He pointed out that social and economic factors had created fissures in the society – groups (nobility / clergy) responsible for well being of the general public had become parasites on public exchequer;
3.3.2. He raised voice against inequitable distribution of wealth in the society – working / poorer classes were being exploited and were unable to meet basic needs, while nobles, ulemas and soldiers were receiving money from public exchequer without performing their duties effectively.
3.3.3. He appealed upper classes to realize their responsibilities. Besides, emphasized upon the working classes to cultivate habits of hard work, honesty and efficiency.
3.3.4. He laid utmost emphasis on justice and equilibrium without which society / economy could not endure / sustain.
3.4. Political:
3.4.1. Marhattas and Jats had made the life of Muslims miserable in India.
3.4.2. He organized Muslims for Jihad against Marhattas and Sikhs.
3.4.3. Invited Ahmed Shah Abdali of Afghanistan and motivated Najib uddawlah Chief Rohillah (North West of India) to help him to save the Muslim community from Marhatta subjugation (Abdali attacked nine times) – triumph of Panipat (1761) was culmination of his political efforts.
3.5. Implications / Impact:
3.5.1. Religious reformation;
3.5.2. Social regeneration
3.5.3. Political ascendancy
4. Conclusion:
4.1. None before him attempted to integrate whole Islamic structure
4.2. It was very influence of Shah Waliullah’s movement that the movements of Syed Ahmed Shaheed and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan flourished and further consolidated Muslims in India.
C. DARUL-ULUM DEOBAND (Founded on 14-04-1866)
1. Introduction
1.1. Brain-child of Haji Mohammad Abid and toil of Maulana Mohammad Qasim Nanautvi (Founder Principal)
1.2. Deoband movement was launched to counter Aligarh Movement which reconciled with British rulers and Western civilization.
1.3. It was struggle for welfare and renaissance of Muslims through orthodox religious teaching.
1.4. Shah Waliullah (1703-1762) was mentor (guru) of the movement – Shah Abdul Aziz and Syed Ahmed Shaheed were other pioneers (in philosophy).
2. Credo of Deoband Movement:
2.1. In initial stages, it concentrated on diversity of thought among various sects and on purifying the traditions of Islam from alien influences / unhealthy practices.
2.2. Maulana Qasim had come in conflict with the British during War of 1857 – he objected Western thoughts. The institution / movement was committed to religious nationalism in India.
2.3. The pioneers were orthodox ulema, whose credo was the defence of religion as the only panacea to save the distinct identity of Indian Muslims.
2.4. The movement adopted a moderate posture and was neither extremist nor ultra orthodox. Spread religious education commendably
3. Other Personalities:
3.1. Maulana Shabbir Ahmed Usmani extended his services without remuneration
3.2. Shaikh ul Hind Maulana Mahmud-ul-Hassan was very dynamic (he was instrumental in bringing Aligarh and Deoband closer by minimizing differences)
3.3. Haji Imadullah and Maulana Mahmood Hassan were of high caliber but lacked public appeal / popularity (they were only teachers – did not join the movement)
4. Influence / Impact of Deoband:
4.1. Education:
4.1.1. Attracted large number of students from various parts of India and abroad – in 1931, enrolment was 900 from UP, NWFP, Bengal and Bukhara
4.1.2. Educational standard was maintained that soon it was rated as the most prestigious seat of Islamic learning after Al-Azhar University, Cairo.
4.2. Religious:
4.2.1. The plan was to train enough ulema to be able to spread Islamic philosophy – Th movement produced:
4.2.1.1. Maulana Ashraf Thanvi, 4.2.1.2 Maulana Ehtisham ul Haq Thanvi
4.2.1.3 Maulana Ubedullah Sindhi
4.2.2. Quran, Hadith, Arabic, Islamic jurisprudence, philosophy and Islamic history were main disciplines – fatwas of Deoband Ulemas were considered authentic in the sub-continent.
4.3. Administrative
4.3.1. The institution provided administrative guidance to other educational institutions in syllabus, conduct of examination and teaching techniques – it had acquired the status of an informal university – this further facilitated spread of Islamic education in India.
4.4. Political
4.4.1. Leaders of the movement aimed at closer relationship with Sultan of Turkey.
4.4.2. Maulana Ubedullah Sindhi and Maulana Mahmood Hassan supported Turks and Afghans against British in WW-1.
4.4.3. Madni Group under Maulana Hussain Ahmed Madni aligned with Congress
4.4.4. But another group under Maulana Ashraf Thanvi and Maulana Shabbir Ahmed Usmani counteracted the influence of Congress on Deoband – helped Quaid-e-Azam in Pakistan movement – they were more popular among masses.
4.5. Social
4.5.1. Like Aligarh, successfully awakened social consciousness of Muslims through religious education.
5. Deoband versus Aligarh
5.1. Deoband Ulema were very effective in combating anti Islamic missionaries but could not provide any solid leadership (unlike their mentor – Shah Waliullah)
5.2. On the other hand Sir Syed Ahmed Khan revitalized and re-evaluated the ideas of Islam in the light of the progressive philosophy of Shah Waliullah and became successful in resolving intellectual crises created by traditional thinking and fundamentalism. He provided effective and solid leadership to the community.
5.3. Aligarh movement, unlike Deoband, was very popular and instrumental among the Muslim masses
5.4. The two movements had philosophical cleavages – widened gulf between them from the beginning. The authorities of the two institutions remained engaged in controversy.
5.5. While Sir Syed forbad Muslims to join Congress, a group of Deoband ulema, led by Maulana Madni joined Congress.
5.6. Sir Syed was reconciliatory while Deoband Ulemas were deadly against Britih – they even established their own government in their areas of influence for some time. Political tension existed between the two until 1947.
6. Conclusion
6.1. Deoband had a limited sphere of influence due to its narrow approach and selected adoption of the philosophy of its mentor.
6.2. The most progressive tool (ijtihad) of Shah Waliullah was adopted by Sir Syed who became popular among the rulers and the Muslim masses.
6.3. Deoband Ulema remained wavered and grouped themselves with conflicting credos (aligning with Ottomans against British in WW-1 on the one hand and joining Hindu dominated pro-British Congress on the other) – Thus they lost appeal of masses.
D. THE ALIGARH MOVEMENT
1. Introduction:
1.1. Brain child of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898) and toil of his followers – Hali, Shibli, Nazeer Ahmed (Syed Amir Ali, author of ‘Spirit of Islam’ – which was new interpretation of Islam, though not a member, but contributed largely to the goals of Aligarh Movement)
1.2. Characteristics of Muslim community soon after 1857 War – education was bleak (illiteracy rampant), religion an obsession (traditional thinking, religious fanaticism) and politics was an enigma (puzzle / mystery).
1.3. Movements of Shah Waliullah and Syed Ahmed Shaheed reduced animosities (hostilities) from among the Muslim community but created over obsession towards religious thinking. This fanaticism was a barrier in the renaissance and regeneration of the community after War of Independence – British hegemony and Hindu domination.
1.4. A cultural movement aimed at regeneration of liberal values – literature, social life and religion.
1.5. Education was the foundation on which Sir Syed build a super structure of his religious, social and political ideas for Muslims
2. Highlights of the Movement:
2.1. The movement acted as social, political and psychological panacea for betterment of Muslims in India.
2.2. British loyalty and confidence was also the programme of the movement
2.3. The Educational Aspect:
2.3.1. Aim: groom and quip Muslims with Western education to become intellectually and politically sound to play role effectively in the development of India
2.3.2. Sir Syed visited England in (1869) to study English educational institutions
2.3.3. Established Mohammedan Anglo Oriental (MAO) College, Aligarh (1875) – later became Aligarh Muslim University - centre of cultural activities for Muslims
2.3.4. Mohammedan Educational Conference (1886) – spread message through conferences, seminars, public meetings, etc.
2.3.5. Translation Society at Ghazipur (1864) later became Aligarh Scientific Society – translated modern works from English to Persian and Urdu, published a journal ‘Aligarh Institute Gazette’ (1866) bridged gulf between British and Muslims.
2.4. Religious Role:
2.4.1. Sir Syed wrote many books on Islam to establish that it was a progressive religion – no conflict with Modern world, science and development
2.4.2. He gave a befitting reply in the form of detailed essays to William Moor’s blasphemous book – ‘Life of Mohammad’
2.4.3. Attempts were made to rationally interpret Islamic ideas and concepts
2.4.4. Emancipated the Muslims from centripetal tendencies of religion by recommending extensive use of Ijtihad.
2.5. Political Contribution:
2.5.1. Policy of the movement was to remain away from politics (Aligarh was apolitical!)
2.5.2. However, the movement safeguarded the political interests of Muslims of India by educating them to face better educated and more prosperous Hindus
2.5.3. To promote better understanding with the British, Sir Syed wrote a pamphlet – ‘The Causes of the Indian Revolt’
2.5.4. He highlighted services of the Muslims and defended them in ‘Loyal Mohammadans of India’.
2.5.5. The movement championed Muslim nationalism cause when Sir Syed advised Muslims not to join Congress – thereby provoked the to establish a separate political party [critical]
2.5.6. He was first to propose idea of ‘separate electorate’ for Muslims – did not believe in Westminster democracy (majority rule) in India – [critical]
2.5.7. Pleaded inclusion of Muslims in the Legislative Council to represent their community;
2.5.8. The movement was bastion (fortress) of Two Nation Theory – Sir Syed was the first to formally propagate the idea after being disgruntled with Hindu attitude and advocated separate and distinct identity of Muslims with different culture, religion, civilization, etc. He was the first to formally call Muslims ‘a nation’
2.6. Social Role:
2.6.1. Reawakened Muslims with social consciousness
2.6.2. ‘Tahzibul Ikhlaq’ ( ) magazine played positive role in improving morality / moral values.
3. The Impact of the Movement:
3.1. Immediate:
3.1.1. Transformed the Muslim community from pessimism of the post 1857 war days to optimism - gave a new hope to the Muslims
3.1.2. bridged the gulf between the British and Muslims (their loyalty no more challenged)
3.1.3. provided an opportunity to catch up with Hindus / other Indians
3.1.4. Produced graduates to fill up senior government assignments
3.2. Long Term / Far Reaching:
3.2.1. Infused new spirit in the dormant Muslim community raised it to a level of a separate and independent nation in India
3.2.2. Gave political wisdom and offered new horizons to the Muslims which ultimately paved way for establishment of All India Muslim League.
3.2.3. Under the influence of MAO Aligarh, Islamia College Peshawar and Islamia Collge Lahore became nucleus for Muslim educational and political activities
3.2.4. Aligarh Movement indeed spearheaded Pakistan Movement!
4. Conclusion:
4.1. Some argue that Sir Syed’s political philosophy of cooperation with British had serious limitations; while others contend that his acceptance of Western values could not build a nation with distinct identity and values; some critics even consider his religious concept narrow and un-philosophical
4.2. But at a critical juncture of the history of Indian Muslims his movement and philosophy provided opportunities and saved Muslims from the inertia, stagnation and even annihilation
“People say Sir Syed set up a college, nay, he made a nation” - Dr. Maulvi Abdul Haq
4.3. The movement provided new zeal and vigor to the Muslims of India
4.4. Pakistan would not have been possible without the Aligarh Movement
E. NADWA-TUL-ULEMA, LUCKNOW
1. INTRODUCTION:
1.1. Nadwa was an outcome of prominent Muslims who wanted to adopt a middle path between Deoband (old and traditional patterns) and Aligarh (modern knowledge).
1.2. Established by leading Muslim Ulema, under the leadership of Shibli Nomani, Maulvi Abdul Ghafoor (Deputy Collector) and Syed Mohammad Ali of Kanpur in 1894, at Lucknow.
1.3. Syed Mohammad Ali was the founder and Administrator
1.4. Shibli Nomani, initially a teacher of Persian in Aligarh, left it and joined Nadwah. He believed that Aligarh was only producing youth for clerical jobs and had lost its purpose.
2. THE OBJECTIVES:
The objectives were to:
2.1. Reform maktabs, develop religious learning, improve morals and behaviour;
2.2. Resolve and settle difference of opinion among the ulema and observe restraint on expression of divergent views;
2.3. Devise ways and means for general welfare of the Muslims but keep them away from politics and affairs of the state;
2.4. Establish a magnificent academy of learning where technical education could be provided along with academic education;
2.5. Spread Islam through tableegh and to establish department of ufta (to give fatwas).
3. THE MOVEMENT OF MODERATION:
3.1. The modern educational system was reorganized and Shibli Nomani became the Principal of Nadwa in 1908. He introduced English and Islamic subjects of learning in the curriculum.
3.2. At Nadwa the preachers were trained to carry out these objectives and were sent to different parts of the sub-continent for the ‘missionary work’.
3.3. Al Nadwa, monthly magazine (1904) under the editorship of Maulana Shibli and Maulana Habib-ur-Rahman Sherwani, attempted to harmonize Islamic thought with modern science.
4. ROLE IN PAKISTAN MOVEMENT:
4.1. Allama Sulaiman Nadvi played an important role before and after the creation of Pakistan was a product of this institution.
4.2. Other prominent personalities included Maulvi Abdul Haque, Maulana Abdus Salam Nadvi and Maulvi Abu Zafar. They played very important role in imparting religious knowledge and creating political consciousness among the Muslims.
5. CRITICAL APPRECIATION:
5.1. All the efforts of Nadwa did help ulema to retain their hold on the Muslims. However, the compromise they made hardly aided the new progressive trends in Islam; but their new approach certainly gave them a new lease of life.
5.2. Nadwa being a compromise between the two systems never gained the popularity and importance which Deoband had in religious circles and Aligarh acquired in modern education.
5.3. However, Dar ul Musaniffin (Academy of Authors) established by Nadwa played important role in the field of research and published a large number of books and valuable literature on Islam.
6. DEOBAND VS. NADWA:
6.1. Deoband was anti-British and gave the idea of removing the British by supporting Hindus / Congress. A large section of Deoband Ulema opposed Pakistan and were in favour of united India. On the contrary, Nadwa believed in the unity of Muslims and was against the Congress. Nadwa students worked for the creation of Pakistan.
6.2. Deoband only appreciated religious teachings (Qoran, Hadith, Fiqh) while Nadwa encouraged English along with Islamic teachings.