Mohenjo-daro (Mound of the dead) was a city of the Indus Valley Civilization built around 2600 BC and is located in the Sindh Province of Pakistan. This ancient five thousand year old city is the largest of Indus Valley and is widely recognized as one of the most important early cities of South Asia and the Indus Valley Civilization. Mohenjo Daro was one of the world’s first cities and contemporaneous with ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations. It is sometimes referred to as "An Ancient Indus Valley Metropolis".

Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and their civilization, vanished without trace from history until discovered in the 1920s. It was extensively excavated in the 1920s, but no in-depth excavations have been carried out since the 1960s.

Mohenjo-daro is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The most extensive recent work at the site has focused on attempts at conservation of the standing structures, undertaken by UNESCO in collaboration with the Department of Archaeology and Museums, as well as various foreign consultants. In December 1996, preservation work at the 500-acre site suspended after funding from the government and international organisations ran out, according to a resident archaeologist.

However in April 1997, the UN Educational, Scientific and Culture Organisation (UNESCO) funded $10 million to a project to be conducted over two decades in order to protect the Mohenjo-daro ruins from flooding. This project has been a success so far.

UNESCO's efforts to save Mohenjo-daro were one of the key events that led the organization to establish World Heritage Sites.

History
Mohenjo-daro was built around 2600 BC, and was abandoned around 1700 BC. It was rediscovered in the 1920s by Sir John Marshall's archaeologists. His car is still in Mohenjo-daro museum, showing his presence, struggle, and dedication for Mohenjo-daro. Further excavations were carried out in 1945 by Ahmad Hasan Dani and Mortimer Wheeler. Mohenjo-daro in ancient times was most likely the administrative center of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization. It was the most developed and advanced city in South Asia during its peak. The planning and engineering showed the importance of the city to the people of Indus valley.

The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1700 BC, flowered 2600–1900 BCE), abbreviated IVC, was an ancient riverine civilization that flourished in the Indus river valley in Pakistan and northwest India. Another name for this civilization is the "Harappan Civilisation".

The Indus Valley civilization (c. 3300-1700 BCE) was one of the most ancient civilizations, on the banks of Indus River. The Indus culture blossomed over the centuries and gave rise to the Indus Valley Civilization around 3000 BCE. The civilization spanned much of Pakistan, but suddenly went into decline around 1800 BCE. Indus Civilization settlements spread as far south as the Arabian Sea coast of India, as far west as the Iranian border, and as far north as the Himalayas. Among the settlements were the major urban centers of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well as Lothal.

The Mohenjo-daro ruins were once the center of this ancient society. At its peak, some archaeologists opine that the Indus Civilization may have had a population of well over five million.

To date, over a thousand cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the Indus River valley in Pakistan and northwestern India.

The language of the Indus Civilization has yet to be deciphered, and the real name of the city as of other excavated cities in Sindh, Punjab and Gujarat, is unknown.

City Structure
Mohenjo-daro is a remarkable construction, considering its antiquity. It has a planned layout based on a grid of streets, which were laid out in perfect patterns. At its height the city probably had around 35,000 residents. The buildings of the city were particularly advanced, with structures constructed of bricks of baked mud, sun dried bricks and burned wood, also the workers produced bricks of the same size

The public buildings of these cities also suggest a high degree of social organization. The great granary at Mohenjo-daro is designed with bays to receive carts delivering crops from the countryside, and there are ducts for air to circulate beneath the stored grain to dry it.

Close to the granary, there is a building similarly civic in nature - a great public bath house, with steps down to a brick-lined pool in a colonnaded courtyard The elaborate bath area was very well built, with a layer of natural tar to keep it from leaking, and in the center was the swimming pool.

The houses were protected from noise, odours, and thieves. This urban plan included the world's first urban sanitation systems.

Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. Some of the houses included rooms that appear to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. A variety of buildings were up to two stories high.

Being an agricultural city, it also featured a large well, and central marketplace. It also had a building with an underground furnace, possibly for heated bathing.

Defensively Mohenjo-daro was a well-fortified city. Lacking city walls, it did have towers to the west of the main settlement, and defensive fortifications to the south. Considering these fortifications and the structure of other major Indus valley cities like Harappa, lead to the question of whether Mohenjo-daro was an administrative center. Both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro share relatively the same architectural layout, and were generally not heavily fortified like other Indus Valley sites. It is obvious from the identical city layouts of all Indus sites, that there was some kind of political or administrative centrality, however the extent and functioning of an administrative center remains unclear. .

Mohenjo-daro was successively destroyed and rebuilt at least seven times. Each time, the new cities were built directly on top of the old ones. Flooding by the Indus is thought to have been the cause of destruction.

The city was divided into two parts, the Citadel and the Lower City. Most of the Lower City is yet uncovered, but the Citadel is known to have the public bath, a large residential structure designed to house 5,000 citizens and two large assembly halls.

Civilization

Artifacts
The Dancing girl found in Mohenjo Daro is an interesting artifact that is some 4500-year old. The 10.8 cm long bronze statue of the dancing girl was found in 1926 from a house in Mohenjo Daro. She was British archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler's favorite statuette, as you can tell in this quote from a 1973 television program:

"There is her little Baluchi-style face with pouting lips and insolent look in the eye. She's about fifteen years old I should think, not more, but she stands there with bangles all the way up her arm and nothing else on. A girl perfectly, for the moment, perfectly confident of herself and the world. There's nothing like her, I think, in the world."

John Marshall, one of the excavators at Mohenjo-Daro, described her as a vivid impression of the young ... girl, her hand on her hip in a half-impudent posture, and legs slightly forward as she beats time to the music with her legs and feet...

The artistry of this lovely statuette crosses time and space and speaks to us of a seemingly unknowable, but at least fleetingly recognizable past. As author Gregory Possehl says:

"We may not be certain that she was a dancer, but she was good at what she did and she knew it".

The statue could well be of some queen or very if not most important woman of the Indus Valley Civilization as is clear from the authority the figure commands.

Seated male sculpture, or "Priest King" (even though there is no evidence that either priests or kings ruled the city). This 17.5 cm tall statue is another artefact which has become a symbol for the Indus valley civilization. Archaeologists discovered the sculpture in Lower town at Mohenjo-Daro in 1927. It was found in an unusual house with ornamental brickwork and a wall niche and was lying between brick foundation walls which once held up a floor.

This bearded sculpture wears a fillet around the head, an armband, and a cloak decorated with trefoil patterns that were originally filled with red pigment.

The two ends of the fillet fall along the back and though the hair is carefully combed towards the back of the head, no bun is present. The flat back of the head may have held a separately carved bun as is traditional on the other seated figures, or it could have held a more elaborate horn and plumed headdress.

Two holes beneath the highly stylized ears suggest that a necklace or other head ornament was attached to the sculpture. The left shoulder is covered with a cloak decorated with trefoil, double circle and single circle designs that were originally filled with red pigment. Drill holes in the center of each circle indicate they were made with a specialized drill and then touched up with a chisel. Eyes are deeply incised and may have held inlay. The upper lip is shaved and a short-combed beard frames the face. The large crack in the face is the result of weathering or it may be due to original firing of this object.

Mulri Hills are located in Gulshan Town, Karachi. Latitude: 24.9166667 / Longitude: 67.1333333

The late Palaeolithic and Mesolithic sites found by Karachi University archaeological team on the Mulri Hills, in front of Karachi University Campus, constitute one of the most important archaeological discoveries made in Sindh during the last fifty years. The last hunter-gatherers, who left abundant traces of their passage, repeatedly inhabited the Hills. Some twenty different spots of flint tools were discovered during the surface surveys.

The Naulakha pavilion is a marble building located at the Sheesh Mahal courtyard, which is itself located at the Lahore Fort in Lahore, Pakistan. Its western face provides a panoramic view of the ancient city of Lahore. When it was built in 1631 A.D. by the Mughal emperor Shahjahan, it cost Rs.900,000, an exorbitant amount at the time. It is called Naulakha because in Urdu, that word means 'worth 9 lakhs'.


Nausharo is located in Balochistan, Pakistan. It is well known for the Harappan period archeological site. The excavations were carried out between 1985 and 1996 by a french team of archeologists. The other sites belonging to the same cluster are Mehrgarh and Pirak

Nausharo excavation
Excavations at Nausharo, 6 km from Mehrgarh, revealed a dwelling-site contemporaneous and identical to that of the Mehrgarh.


Ongar is located a few kilometers south of Hyderabad on the hills, which lie on the right side of the Indus River. At the present state of the research, Ongar is the most important Paleolithic site discovered in southern Sindh. According to the aspect and surface patina of the tools, the flint assemblages can be attributed to the Early, Middle and Late (Upper) Paleolithic periods.

Panchkora Valley of Dir is a valley situated in the North West Frontier Province of Pakistan.

Overview
The Panchkora Valley of Dir was the home of early Aryans. Remains of their settlements are classified as Gandhara grave culture.

Talash Valley , 13 KM from Chakdara, is full of Buddhist remains. Buddhist stupas and monasteries, which have not been excavated, are on both sides of the road towards Dir. At the west end of the valley is Kat Kala Pass. Caroe identified this place with Massaga which was captured by Alexander the Great in 327BC. Here there are remains of massive crumbling Hindu Shahi fort of 8-10th century.

Timargarha , 40 km from Chakdara is the site of excavated graves of Aryans, dating 1500 to 600 BC.

On the west side of Panchkora River is the excavated site of Balambat. Site was in occupation continuously since 1500 BC when Aryans occupied this first time. Houses dated 500 BC have been discovered here. An interesting discovery was fire altars, which shows that people were fire worshippers.

Pir Shah Jurio is a mature Indus Civilization village along the left bank of the Hub River in Sindh. It consists of a small mound, which is nowadays partly covered by a cem etery. From its surface, typical potsherds and other finds were collected. This site is strictly connected with the sea, which is a few kilometers south of it. It was radiocarbon-dated to the third millennium BP, from a sample of Terebralia palustris shells.


Pirak is located in Balochistan, Pakistan. Pirak archaeological site is associated with the Indus Valley Civilisation. It was the first site which was excavated, between 1968 and 1974 before the well known sites of Mehrgarh or Nausharo.

The Pothohar Plateau is a plateau in Punjab, Pakistan. The area was the home of the Soan Culture, which is evidenced by the discovery of fossils, tools, coins, and remains of ancient archaeological sites. The local people speak a distinctive dialect of Punjabi.

History
Existence of the Soan culture finds its home on the Pothohar plateau. The Indus Valley civilization is known to have flourished in the same region between the 23rd and 18th centuries BC. Some of the earliest Stone Age artifacts in the world have been found on the plateau, dating from 500,000 to 100,000 years. The crude stone recovered from the terraces of the Soan carry the account of human grind and endeavors in this part of the world from the inter-glacial period.

The Stone Age people produced their equipment in a sufficiently homogenous way to justify their grouping. Around 3000 BC, small village communities developed in the Pothohar area, which led to the early roots of civilization.

Geography
Bounded on the east by the Jhelum River, on the west by the Indus, on the north by the Kala Chitta Range and the Margalla Hills, and on the south by the Salt Range, Potohar Plateau is really undulating, multi-colored, picturesque and geographically ill-defined area. The diverse wildlife like urial, chinkara, chukor, hare, porcupine, mongoose, wild boar, and Yellow-throated Martin add color to the beauty of the area. Sadly, due to low rainfall, extensive deforestation, coal mining and oil and gas exploration, the Valley is becoming devoid of vegetation. The under water areas of lakes (Uchali, Khabeki and Jhallar - internationally recognized Ramsar site, and scenic Kallar Kahar) have reduced to much smaller areas than in the past. Experts say that the lake has been here for at least 400 years. Locals tell about a strange phenomenon that was observed over Ucchali Lake in 1982. A very broad and distinct rainbow appeared over the horizon of Ucchali and was seen continuously for 15 days. No scientific explanation of this has been given so far, but the locals think that the rainbow appeared because of a volcano hidden under the lakes. They also tell that because of the hidden volcano the water of the lake keeps changing color.

Pothohar in northern Pakistan is the country of the war-like Gakhar clan, later confirmed by the first Mughal Emperor Babur:

"Sultan Sarang was now of age, and finding that he could not oust his cousin (Hati Khan) by force of arms, he procured his death by poison and assumed the chiefship in 1525. He and his brother made their submission to Babur, and Adam Khan, with a Gakhar force, attended him to Delhi, and for this the Potwar country was confirmed to them by the Emperor." Rawalpindi Gazetteer 1894.

The Potohar Plateau lies between the Indus River on the west and the Jhelum River on the east. The Margalla Hills and the Kala Chitta Range form its northern boundary. The Kala Chitta Range rises to an average height of 450 - 900 m and extends for about 72 km. The southern boundary is the Salt Ranges. The Swaan River starts from nearby Murree and ends nearby Kalabagh in the Indus iver.

The ruins of the Shahi destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni in 11th Century and of ancient Gandhara destroyed in the 6th Century by the Hunas (Indo-Hephthalites) litter the countyside.

Taxila is an ancient UNESCO World Heritage Site located on the plateau. Taxila (then called taksh-shila) was Hindu and Buddhist seat of learning, connected across the Khunjerab pass to the Silk Road, attracting students from all over the world. Ancient Takshashila was renowned all over the world as home to a great university. It came under the control of the Persian Achaemenid Empire and then Alexander the Great and the Sassanians. As a city in Gandhara it flourished during the first-fifth centuries AD. It was finally destroyed in c.450-c.565 by the Hunas (Indo-Hephthalites)

The modern day cities of Islamabad and Rawalpindi sit on the plateau. The material remains found on the site of the city of Rawalpindi prove the existence of a Gandhara Buddhist establishment contemporary to Taxila but less celebrated than its neighbor. It appears that the ancient city also went into oblivion as a result of the same Hunas (Indo-Hephthalites) devastation. Jhanda Khan, Gakhar Chief, restored it and gave the name of Rawalpindi after the village Rawal in 1493 AD. Today it is the twin city of the capital of Pakistan, Islamabad which was built next to it.

Rohtas Fort located in the Potwar is another UNESCO World Heritage site, built by Sher Shah Suri in 1541 to control the Gakhars who remained loyal to the deposed Mughal Emperor Humayun.

Rawat Fort is located 17 km east of Rawalpindi, on the Grand Trunk (G.T) Road leading to Lahore. The grave of a Gakhar Chief, Sultan Sarang Khan is located inside the fort. He died in 1546 AD fighting against the forces of Sher Shah Suri. If one dares to climb the broken steps inside the tomb, one may get a panoramic view of the plateau and the Mankiala Stupa. The remains of this Buddhist Stupa lie about 32 km south east of Rawalpindi in Mankiala village. Apparently, this Gandhara stupa was built in the reign of Kanishka (128-151 AD). According to legend, Buddha had sacrificed parts of his body here, to feed seven hungry tiger-cubs. In 1930, several gold, silver and copper coins (660 - 730 AD) and a bronze casket having Kharosthi inscriptions, were discovered from this stupa.

Pharwala Fort is about 40 km from Rawalpindi beyond Lehtrar road. The Gakhar ruler, Sultan Kai Gohar built it in 15th century on the ruins of a 10th century Hindu Shahi Fort. Emperor Babur attacked the fort in 1519 AD before Hati Khan had acknowledged him.

The Salt Range is dotted with Hindu temples, of which the most notable is the Katas Raj. Located 25 kilometers from Chakwal, Katas Raj is notable in many ways.

The temple was not abandoned by local Hindus when they migrated to East Punjab in 1947. Many legends sacred to the Hindus are associated with it, some of them involving Shiva himself. It has always been the site of holy pilgrimage. Even nowadays, through an agreement between India and Pakistan, Hindu worshippers perform a pilgrimage to the temple every year and bathe in the sacred pool around which Katas Raj is built.

While Katas Raj has not received much publicity, the two semi-ruined temples of the Hindu shahi period (650-950 AD) have been frequently photographed by newspapers and history journals.

Katas Raj is also held sacred by Hindus for another reason. Legend says that the five Pandava brothers, heroes of the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata, stayed here for four out of the 14 years that they spent in exile.

A joint project with Professors Abdur Rehman, past Chairman of the Department of Archaeology, University of Peshawar, and Farid Khan, founder of the Pakistan Heritage Society, has begun to analyse and document these important monuments in the history of South Asian temple architecture with funding from the University of Pennsylvania. Two seasons of excavation have been carried out at the site of North Kafirkot.


Pushkalavati is an ancient site situated in Peshawar valley in Sarhad, Pakistan. It is located on the banks of Swat River, near its junction with Kabul River , now it is known as Charsadda. Puskalavati meaning Lotus City was the capital of ancient kingdom Gandhara from the 6th century BC to 2nd century AD.

The ruins of Pushkalavati consist of many stupas and sites of two old cities.

Bala Hisar
This is the oldest settlement of the Pushkalavati occupied from 6th century BC. Ashoka built a stupa there which was described by Xuan Zang when he visited in 630AD, which is still not found. This site was first time excavated in 1902 by Marshal and than by Mortimer Wheeler in 1958.

Shaikhan Dheri
Bactrain Greek built a new city at this site which lies one kilometre from Bala Hisar on the other side of the branch of River Jinde. This city was occupied by Parthian, Sakas and Kushans. In 2nd AD, river changed its course and city was flooded. Town moved to the site of modern village of Rajar.

The city was partly excavated by Ahmad Hasan Dani in 1960’s. There are still many mounds at Mir Ziarat, at Rajar and Shahr-i-Napursan which are still unexcavated.

Pushkalavati & Prayag
The city of Pushkalavati was situated at the confluence of Swat and Kabul rivers. Three different branches of Kabul river meet there. That specific place is still called Prang and considered sacred. The local people still bring their dead for burial. Aryan found similar geographical characteristics at the confluence of Ganges and Jumna and founded sacred city by the name of Pryayag near Benares, which is one of the ancient pilgrim centers of India.


Rehman Dheri is an Pre-Harappan Archaeological Site situated near Dera Ismail Khan in the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan.

This is one of the oldest urbanized centers found to date in South Asia. Dated about 4000 BC, the site is situated 22 kilometers (13.7 miles) north of Dera Ismail Khan. Since the earliest occupation, except for the extension outside the city in the south, the entire habitation area was enclosed by a massive wall, built from dressed blocks made from clay slabs. The low mound of this fortified town is visible from Bannu Road. This rectangular mound is covering about 22 hectares and standing 4.5 m above the surrounding field. The fortified town of about ten to fifteen thousand inhabitants shows sign of town planning. Pottery and stone and metal tools were found.

No seals were found and no writing was discovered, though some forms of engraving or scraping on the pottery were observed.


Rehri or Rehri Goth is one of the neighborhoods of Bin Qasim Town in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Rehri is located on the Arabian Sea coast and has large a community of fishermen.

At Rehri, along the coast east of Karachi, Karachi University archaeological team discovered a few Mesolithic and Late Palaeolithic sites. Most of these sites have vanished during the last twenty years. Nevertheless their discovery shed new light on the prehistory of the coastal area of Lower Sindh. Scatters of flint were found in different spots, some of which were associated with Terebralia palustris mangrove shells.

There are several ethnic groups in Bin Qasim Town including Urdu speakers, Punjabis, Sindhis, Kashmiris, Seraikis, Pakhtuns, Balochs, Memons, Bohras, Ismailis. Over 99% of the population is Muslim. The population of Bin Qasim Town is estimated to be nearly one million.


Sagala, believed to be modern Sialkot, was a city of located in northern Punjab, Pakistan. Sagala (alias Sakala) is mentioned as the capital of Madra Kingdom as per the epic Mahabharata.

Destruction by Alexander
The city appears in the accounts of Alexander the Great's conquests of India. After crossing the Hydraotes, Alexander, joined by Porus with elephants and 5,000 Indian troops, laid siege to Sagala, where the Cathaeans had entrenched themselves. The city was razed to the ground, and many of its inhabitants killed:

"The Cathaeans... had a strong city near which they proposed to make their stand, named Sagala. The next day Alexander rested his troops, and on the third advanced on Sangala, where the Cathaeans and their neighbours who had joined them were drawn up in front of the city. At this point too, Porus arrived, bringing with him the rest of the elephants and some five thousand Indians. Alexander returned to Sangala, razed the city to the ground, and annexed its territory". Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, V.22-24

Sunga period
Following his overthrowing of the Mauryan Empire, Pusyamitra Sunga is believed in tradition to have expanded northwest as far as Sagala. According to the 2nd century Ashokavadana:

"Then King Pusyamitra equipped a fourfold army, and intending to destroy the Buddhist religion, he went to the Kukkutarama. Pusyamitra therefore destroyed the sangharama, killed the monks there, and departed.

After some time, he arrived in Sakala, and proclaimed that he would give a hundred dinara reward to whomever brought him the head of a Buddhist monk."

Indo-Greek period
The Indo-Greeks apparently repelled the Sungas and Sagala was used as a capital by the Greco-Bactrian (alternatively Indo-Greek or Graeco-Indian) king Menander during his reign between 160 and 135 B.C.

Though many Graeco-Bactrian, and even some Indo-Greek cities were designed along Greek architectural lines, Sagala was clearly an Indian city. In contrast to other imperialist governments elsewhere, literary accounts suggests the Greeks and Indians of cities like Sagala lived in relative harmony, with some Indians adopting the responsibilities of Greek citizenship - and more astonishingly, Greeks converting to Buddhism.

The best descriptions of Sagala however, come from the Milinda Panha, a dialogue between King Menander and the Buddhist monk Nagasena. Historians like Sir Tarn believe this document was written around 100 years after Menander's rule, which is one of the best enduring testimonies of the productiveness and benevolance of his rule, which has made the more modern theory that he was regarded as a Chakravartin - King of the Wheel or literally Wheel-Turner in Sansrkit - generally accepted.

In the Milindapanha, the city is described in the following terms:

"There is in the country of the Yonakas a great centre of trade, a city that is called Sâgala, situate in a delightful country well watered and hilly, abounding in parks and gardens and groves and lakes and tanks, a paradise of rivers and mountains and woods. Wise architects have laid it out, and its people know of no oppression, since all their enemies and adversaries have been put down. Brave is its defence, with many and various strong towers and ramparts, with superb gates and entrance archways; and with the royal citadel in its midst, white walled and deeply moated. Well laid out are its streets, squares, cross roads, and market places. Well displayed are the innumerable sorts of costly merchandise with which its shops are filled. It is richly adorned with hundreds of alms-halls of various kinds; and splendid with hundreds of thousands of magnificent mansions, which rise aloft like the mountain peaks of the Himalayas. Its streets are filled with elephants, horses, carriages, and foot-passengers, frequented by groups of handsome men and beautiful women, and crowded by men of all sorts and conditions, Brahmans, nobles, artificers, and servants. They resound with cries of welcome to the teachers of every creed, and the city is the resort of the leading men of each of the differing sects. Shops are there for the sale of Benares muslin, of Kotumbara stuffs, and of other cloths of various kinds; and sweet odours are exhaled from the bazaars, where all sorts of flowers and perfumes are tastefully set out. Jewels are there in plenty, such as men's hearts desire, and guilds of traders in all sorts of finery display their goods in the bazaars that face all quarters of the sky. So full is the city of money, and of gold and silver ware, of copper and stone ware, that it is a very mine of dazzling treasures. And there is laid up there much store of property and corn and things of value in warehouses-foods and drinks of every sort, syrups and sweetmeats of every kind. In wealth it rivals Uttara-kuru, and in glory it is as Âlakamandâ, the city of the gods".

Incidentally, Sagala was also the capital of the Indo-Hepthalite King Mihirakula.

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