A Brief Introduction of Pakistan’s Archaeology Derived from Pakistan heritage foundation document
Pakistan is one of the countries in the world with diversified ecological and cultural treasure. Archaeological development in the past and present highlights major discoveries, expeditions and research in Pre-History, Proto-History, early-History, Late History and Muslim periods.
Research of the early phases at Mehar Garh and Kili Gul Muhammad (Balochistan) established the findings that switching over to food production from hunting and gathering in Pakistan took place around the same period (Early Holocene 9th Millennium B.C) as that of the Syria, Turkey, Iraq and North Western Iran.
Mahenjodaro / Harappa Civilization’s rise and fall of the great Civilization remained an unsolved mystery. It was due to research, discoveries and investigation of many sites in the province of Balochistan, Sind, Punjab and North Western Frontier Province that the origin and Evolutionary stages of the Indus Civilization were comprehensively established.
The Great Gap between the fall of Harappan / Indus Civilization ( 18th 19th century B.C) and the beginnings of Achaemenum period (6th Century B.C) still needs to be solved the discoveries of Buddhist sites also shed light on Art and Architecture of Gandahara periods. The discoveries at Bhambore and Udigram District Swat confirmed the 1st and earliest and late Muslim invasions, which influence the dynamics of different Islam styles, art and Architecture.
Pakistan’s Pre-Historic Culture (A brief Introduction)
Pakistan’s cultural activity classified into three 3 important zones:
1. Pre-Historic Zone
2. Proto-Historic Zone
3. Historic Zone
1. Pre-Historic Zone of Pakistan is further divided in to 3 three phases.
A. Paleolithic
B. Mesolithic
C. Neolithic
There phases are further grouped into
I. Lower and Early Stone Age
II. Middle Stone Age
III. Upper or late Stone Age.
A. Paleolithic phase: Paleolithic phase and cultural activities started about two 2 million years ago and continued till 10,000 BC.
Pakistan “Hand Axe Culture” was reported by Dr Terra and Paterson (Yale and Cambridge Expedition 1936) Visited Hamalyan region, Kashmir and Foothills of Punjab. They claimed four Glacial phases in Kashmir. Their later discovery of Stone Age was SOAN valley culture, which was related to these glacises.
The interglacial and inter pluvial climatic conditions give birth to the development of human cultural activities in the region.
Pleistocene geology of Pakistan (Potohar area)
The potohar region is an elevated plain which includes Rawalpindi and other parts of Punjab. The Siwalike are comparatively recent formation, comprising of wind blown material and fresh water deposits. These important deposits are dated as early as late Miocene till early middle Pleistocene age.
The Siwaliks series in Pakistan cam be observed particularly in the north West Pakistan such as at Bannu and Nowshera.
a) Lower Siwaliks.
b) Middle Siwaliks.
c) Upper Siwaliks.
All the three groups except the top most have yielded fossils of mammals, including these of anthropoids (Ape).
A. Early Stone Age of Pakistan:
Beside the classification of river SOAN terrace formation the expedition (Yale and Cambridge) divided the entire SOAN valley culture into five 5 phases.
This grouping is on the bases of cultural assemblages in the SOAN valley.
Classification of SOAN valley culture is:
1) Pre Soan
2) Early Soan
3) Late Soan
4) Chauntra Culture
5) Evolved Soan.
In early Stone Age of Soan valley important tools like pebble, choppes chopping & Abbevillion – Acheullean type tools were reported.
B.Middle Paleolithic of Pakistan:
The Middle Paleolithic culture is the developed stage of lowers Stone Age. Fire was regularly used; economy was based on hunting gathering & collection of fruit & vegetables. Men for the 1st time sheltered himself inside the rock shelters. The world famous middle Stone Age site located in the Mardan district known as Sanghao cave. Its 1st period is assigned to middle stone age sanghao cave industry to be placed of Mousterian phase of Afghanistan & central Asia, belongs to upper Pleistocene of 60000 B.P to 20000 BP. Middle stone age discoveries of Soan valley are important due to denticulate & Notched tools.
c. Upper Stone Culture of Pakistan:
This (upper Stone/late stone age) is generally regarded as Blade industry. Microhthic tools, Barbed Harpoon, Sharp point & some bones tools were also introduction. The phase dated from 35000BP to 10000 BP. In Pakistan (Balochistan) cave Art started & 9 caves have been so far discovered the Zoomorphic figures are also depicted in two-dimensional methods. These painting have close comparison with the cave art of Alta Mira Spain, which is dated from 22000 BP to 12000 BP.
B.MESOLITHIC CULTURE OF PAKISTAN:
The Mesolithic phase is the beginning of microlithic culture. This period is dated to 10000 BP. The quartz tools, char tools, blades (Geometrical shape tools like lunette, trapezes & Triangular are reported. These tools from Cryptocrystalinesilike.
C. NEOLITHIC CULTURE OF PAKISTAN:
This place was replaced by the Proto-Historic event, such as world Famous Indus valley civilization / Harappan Civilization, the man of this era contributed a lot in agriculture, & demonstration of animals.
This stone age of Pakistan is the beginning of the settled life. It converted into villages & towns. The houses were for the 1st time constructed with burnt bricks. Ceramic traditions made its introduction. Three different techniques for pottery formation adopted.
1st-- Basket mark pottery
2nd-- Hand made ceramics
3rd-- Wheel made pottery
Kiln were made & used to make bricks & ceramics were baked. Clay figurines were replaced by terracotta figurine.
Terra cota heads, semiprecious stone were used which shows the long distance trade between Neolithic sites of Pakistan, Afghanistan & Iran.
Burial tradition & burial pottery in Pakistan started in this area. Cottonseed discovery in excavation indicating the weaving / Clothing industry. Different basic methods were used for these artifacts. i-e
I. Flanking
II. Grounding / Polishing
III. Pecking Technique
Sickle blades for Agriculture is also the significant achievement of this era.
The earliest settlement of this era is Meher Garh dated to 8215 B.C & its last phase is 2500 BC. This was the evolution birth of the great Indus civilization, which started from 2350 BC. The important sites are:
* Mehen Garh.
* Killi Gul Mohammad
* Quetta Valley locality 17, 24, 25 & 34
* Gumla, D.I. Khan
* Kot Dijji Sind
* Sherren Khan Tarakai Bannu.
* Takot Bridge Alai Hazara
* 103 caves in Las Baila
* lakehenjodara Sukker
* Jalipur 65 Km f Grappa.
* Saria Khola Taxila.
* Rehman Dheri D.I. Khan.
PROTO HISTORY OF PAKISTAN
The sheltering, domestication of animals early agriculture & exploitation of plants & animals is specialty of early Holocene period.
Period I. Neolithic
a: Aceramic Neolithic, 8200 B.C
b: Ceramic Neolithic 6th millennium BC.
Period II. 6th millennium BC
a: Developed unorganized building.
b: early Chalocolithic.
Period III. Second half of the 6th millennium BC (Chalcolithic Period)
Period IV. Late chalocolithic (early Bronze age) 3500-3200 BC
Period V. Bronze age 3200-2500 BC
Pakistan’s Proto-History extended back into 2nd half of the 4th millennium BC. Photographic details / symbols, carved seals trademark, symbols, engraved pottery are significant specialist of this great phase.
The discovery & study of Amri has brought light on Pre-Harappan in Southern Sind. In early 60’s J.M casal made the 1st scientific & comprehensive investigation. He established the sequence of Pre & Early Harappan below the mature Harappan phase. In Early Harappan sites, bowls, Goblets, Vases, painted pottery, copper & bronze chert Blades, polychrome painted & geometric designs & figurines of birds & animals are striking element of this phase.
The planned, fortified architecture of the towns & villages is the main contribution of this era discoveries Terracotta figurine & artifacts of bronze & copper found at Rehman-Dhei, Mohenjo-Daro, Shahr-I-Soktha East Iran, and Mundigak Southern Afghanistan & Nimazgah Tepe Central Asia. Closely linked & resemble with each other.
The evidence of indigenous development of Indus Valley is available from early Harappan sites e.g. (Amri , Mehargarh , Kot Dijj, Gumls & Reham Dheri).
The Indus valley gave birth to one of the main & most accomplished urban system in the 3rd millennium BC. The urban system of Indus valley later developed under the sophisticated township, house, drainage, sewerage & drinking water supply planning & system.
The long distance trade, roads, baked bricks architecture, standardized weight, measures, seals with writing & Craft specialization, civic discipline & administration is the hall mark of this society, which is rarely witnessed in the then contemporary world. This civilization spread from the foothills of Himalayas to the Indian Gujarat, Rajisthan & Pak-Iran border land.
The ancient Pakistan developed an urban civilization contemporary to the Egyptian & Mesopotamian, but in many aspects for supervision to its western counter part in over all urban achievements. The cities of Harappa & Mohijo-Daro become the hallmark & birth of oriental Civilization South & Southwest Asia.
POST-URBAN PHASE OF PAKISTAN
Around 2000 BC Pakistan Indus urban system declined & collapsed, the fragmentation of Indus civilization into Regional, & Rural culture developed the bases for post urban phase of Pakistan, for 1500 years the great planned cities of Indus civilization no longer existed. The scattered evidences of post urban culture are available in all over Pakistan’s different localities. This “Dark ages” dated form 18th – 19th century BC the arrival of Achaemenian in the 6th century BC.
Some sites of Balochistan, Sind & Punjab indicate the new arrival form Iran & Central Asia. The violent destruction of Rana-Ghundai & Dahar Kot in Northern Balochistan shows the fall of Indus civilization & rise of the new Aliens.
In the geometrical discoveries of Shah-i-Tump the copper stamp seals, copper shat-hole axe & painted gray pottery seals, copper pins with spiral loops or mushroom heads, painted pottery with naturalistic & abstract designs in monogichrome & polychrome have clear influence form Iran, Caucasus central Asia, Afghanistan & west. The post-urban phase of Pakistan divided 1st phase 18- 17th century BC. The characteristic of this phase is mud-bricks structures associated with large platform, yielded pottery, hand made coarse painted designs & figurines of Horses & Camels. The 2nd & 3rd phase (1370-1340 BC) &1000-80 BC respectively carry almost the same tradition as sub phase (18-17th century BC) but the last phase is with same introduction of Iranian influence.
Some of the Harappan (black on red) pottery also continued in these phases.
Gandahara grave Culture
Northern valleys of Swat Dir & Chitral hundreds cemeteries founded & covering a span of over are 1000 year. To these sites the Italian Archaeologist called the Pre-Buddhist period. But later on they realized that these cemeteries belonged to Asakenios of lower & upper Swat. Despite the cemeteries site spreading in vast area of NWFP of the general categories of these graves are
a: Double pit/bi- Chamber graves
b: single pit/uni- Chamber graves.
Disposal of the Deads:
1. Inhumation
2. Cremation
3. Fractional
Funerary Goods:
* Vessels & pottery made on wheel
* Small, Medium & Large size jars
* Cooking pots
* Rectangular & square boxes.
* Bowls
* Drinking cups (gray & black ware)
* Beads (particular in female burial)
* Toilets objective.
* Copper & bronze pins.
* Short draggers
* Knives
* Swords
* Arrow Heads
* Spear
* Iron Artifices.
* Female figurines (Limited in No)
Buddhist / Gandahara Art in Pakistan.
Hundreds of Buddhist sites yielded thousands of sculptural pieces during the last two hundreds years. The chronology of these Buddhist sculpture were started from 3rd Century B.C to 10th Century AD.
The Indus-Oxus regions cover the valleys of the Indus & Oxus & the territory between them. This land-mass comprised a number of ancient states, more or less independent among which (Uddiyana) (Malakand division) & Gandahara (Peshawar Valley) were situated in present Pakistan & Kapisa (Punjshir – Ghorband Valley) & Bactria Afghanistan. The sculpture of their states slightly different for each other.
Buddhist monuments such as Dharmarajika stupa at Taxila, the great stupa at Butkara, Asokan rock-edicts in Shahbaz-Garhi & Mansehra in the North-West-Frontier-Province of Pakistan & inscription near Jalalabad in Afghanistan suggest that Buddhism was introduced into this region by missionaries at the Asoka Maurya is the early half of the 3rd century BC or even earlier. It has been a dominant region here for about a millennium for the Artistic Buddhist activities.
The Buddhist at was religious & its purpose was the propagation of Buddhist but later on changed to the provision of cult objects.
In the upper Indus Valley two neighboring ancient states Uddiyana & Gandahara played a dominant role in the promotion & evolution of Buddhist art in Indus region. It was in the historical profile that these states developed a hybrid culture drawing influence form Persia, India, central Asia, Greece & Rome & which resulted in diversified artistic traits in Buddhist art.
The long march of academic pursuit can be summarized into three phases.
i. Antiquarian interest.
ii. Beginning of Systematic Archaeological Research.
iii. Reconstruction of Archaeo-Environment.
The latest research, based on the excavated material from various site in the Swat Valley bring us to the conclusion that the Swat Valley might have been the place where the origin of the Indus-oxus school took place.
Swat is beautiful but it might have been paradise in the past when its natural beauty was fully intact.
It is fall of Buddhist monuments but more 75% still remain to be explored that need serious attention of scholars, Govts & Privates sectors.
Hindu Shahis of Pakistan:
Evidence for various archaeological sequence & historical monuments Pakistan has been the home of multiple culture devises in nature because of invasions & mass migrations from the North-West & East.
The indigenous Indus valley culture was fallowed by that of the Vedic people / Aryans, who came down from the steeps in (2000 BC).
Brahmanism culture was also enriched by the influx of traits from other alien nations-
* The Achaemenian of Persia
* Greeks
* Indians
* Bactrian Greeks
* Scythe – Parthian
* Kusanas
* Kusanao-Sassanians
* Huns
Form 6th century BC to 6th Century AD. The history of the Hindu Shahis can be traced back to the Turk Shahis of Kabal. The former was founded by Kallar, an usurper of the throne of Lankaturman, the last ruler of the Turks Shahi dynasty of Afghanistan, in AD 843.
He shifted his capital to Hund on (North West Frontier Province) the right Bank of the Indus, in the Peshawar Valley in due course of time the Hindu-Shahi rulers realized them suzerainty in other part of the Indus region. However the (world Famous) salt range in believed to the their stronghold as the frequency of the Hindu temples.
Epigraphy in Pakistan:
In the reconstruction of a history, or in studying the political, administration, legislative & dynastic records of extent civilizations. Epigraphy plays a very important role, as it provide a sure hosts for even line of research connected with its past.
Pakistan depends largely for its political & cultural history an art & architecture, numismatics, inscriptions & external records. The earliest literary references to the region were found for the 1st time in the oldest document of the indo-Aryans, the eigveda but a clear-cut & detailed definitions is found for the 1st time in the accounts of the visited Buddhist sites in Gandahara in the early 7th century AD. Portion of the ancient history of Pakistan is reconstructed mainly form the Literacy & archaeological evidences in the shape of inscriptions, coins & monuments is more important then Literacy record.
Local & foreign epigraphy mentions the region as early as the time of Darius 528-19 C-BC. The name Gandahara also appeared in Kambojas rock edict of Ashoka. During the conquest of Cyrus & the arrival of Islam, Pakistan was under the native sway for a few hundred years. Otherwise the country suffered a succession of foreign invaders.
* Achaemenian 558-327 BC
* Greek 327-05 BC
* Bactrian 190-90 BC
* Sakan 90- BC- 64 AD
* Kushan 64 AD – 460 AD
Who founded kingdoms in the region, thus left important material in shape of inscription & coins, which can be found through out the country.
The Indus Harappan Civilization seals & inscription is still on unsolved mystery. Many efforts have been already done & still continued, but unfortunately, it has not been solved. The art of writing in Pakistan Starts with the discovery of the Mauryan inscription. To day we know that in Pakistan the most popular earliest script was KHAROSHTHI, which was written for right to left. The script was in use for 3rd century BC to 3rd/ 4th century AD. Then this script was replaced by BRAHMI script which was more convenient for the local language with conquest from Arab Muslims, another type of script introduced called Arabic (8th A.D) was introduced. This script also passes through stages. The earliest was Kufic found at Mansura (Sind) the Tochi valley inscription shows that the Indian scripts were in use side by side with that of the Arabic & Persian script. 5000 different inscriptions have been recorded by Pak-German study group in 1979. Different script has been used in these inscriptions. i-e
* Kharoshthi
* Brahmi
* Sharda
* Sogdian
* Middle-Pessian
* Parthian
* Bactrian
* Chinese
* Hebrew
* Syrian
* Tibetan
* Arabic
Rock Art in Pakistan:
The 1st great discovery of the 19th century in the history of archeological finds of Pakistan an inscribed seal picked up by Alexandra Cunningham from Harappa in 1873. But the recent Landmark discovery is neck-Griddle by a shepherdess. Thousands of rock carving documented in the upper Indus valley.
No wonder rock carving can be found in even other parts of Pakistan geographically speaking the upper Indus of high mountains. This area of Pakistan is a region of impressive mountains consisting Karakoram, Himalaya & Hind-Kush. The river Indus digging a number of deep gorges. Runs first between Haramosh & Karakoram & near Haramosh Indus River, changes its directions to the South. It is crossed by a number of routes, which since at least the 3rd century BC have served as trading link between China, central Asia & the Indo-Pak subcontinent. This mysterious world never have attracted the attention of the orient lists un till the discovery of 30000 carving engraved on the surface of cliffs, rocks & huge boulders found in various localities. This important region which played a backbone role in the commercial & cultural exchange between central Asia & the Indian world was badly ignored.
Apart form the religious or symbolic figures, some of these carving depict eroticism, fighting, dancing & hunting scenes.
Besides them, more then 5000 inscriptions have been recorded so far. In addition to the historic group of carving numerous prehistoric engraving we also found. Among them the foremost are the representation of
* Animals
* Giants
* Mask
* Mastoids
* Prints of hands & feet
* Anthropomorphic representation
What exactly are there carving? We may never be able to understand fully the origin & the specific role of all of them; it seem however that they played an important role in the religious, social & cultural in the religious, social & Cultural life of the than engravers.
Coinage in Pakistan:
The earliest indigenous coinage found in Pakistan & India were struck in Silver & Copper/ Commonly known as “Punch–Marked Coins” the manufacturing technique of their coin was “Punching with separate pressed dies”.
Some scholar are of the view that these coins were introduced in the 6th / 7th century BC. Some 10th century BC & some traces its origin in the beginning of 2nd Millennium BC.
The Puncher marked coins are reordered from Kabul valley, Pakistan and up to the Ganges valley in India, Which shows that these coins were widely circulated until the post Mauryan period.
The coins of Indu Greek Kings, very well known in Pakistan, and Afghanistan are among the 1st in the group of alien’s rulers.
There Greeks are called with different names such as
Ø Indus Greek
Ø Indo- Greeks 256 BC
Ø Indo Bactrian Greek (1st Century BC)
Ø Graeco- Bactrian.
The coins show Hellenistic influence having Greek deities, legends & fabrics. The issued coins in Silver, Copper and in Gold & Nickle in attic weight standards. 0
The Indo – Greeks were succeeded by two dynasties i-e.
- Scythians
- Parthian
In their coins along with Greek influence some Indians deities were added. Mouse, Azes I&II & Gondophares are important rules of their dynasties was ended on the arrival of another great dynasty “Kushans” who came from the North West border of China. The Khushan Period in regarded as the golden age in the history of Pakistan and Afghanistan & Sub Continent.
The important kings of this dynasty are
* Kujula kadphises
* Wima I Takto
* Wima II Kadphises
* Kanishka I
* Huvishka
* Later Kushan Kings.
Their coins received great inspirations from Roman & Persian civilizations. Persian titles & deities with their names in Greek introduced. In lasted period the Indian deities and the image of Buddha was also depicted on the reverse side of the coin.
The Sassanians annexed the Kushans territory in Gandahara & Afghanistan region where as the Eastern part beyond the Indus River was still in the hands of Kushan Kings & were known as later Kushans.
The struck coins in gold, Silver & copper in their own style with famous Fire-altar symbol on the reverse and than gold coins known as Scyphates (Cup Shaped) are the imitations of Vasudeva I issues.
The age of Later Kushans & Kushans – Sassiness was ended up when Kidrites came to Power in the 4th Century AD. Later on they were also overrun by White Huns 5th century AD.
The coins of Huns rulers (Hindu Shahi) are very crude and rough & did not receive great fascinations by scholars. In Pakistan the other series of Coins are known from the time of Hindu- Shahi rules. The most coumarone typer was bull and horseman, Loin and elephant also in noteworthy. They established their kingdom in 9th century AD and continued up to 11th century AD. Their famous kings are:
* Vakkadeva
* Samantadeva
* Jaipal
Muslim Dynasties:
Ghazanuids:
Islamic coins started from the time of Ghazanvids (of Afghanistan) who detoured the Hind Shahi dynasty. Thin coins are recorded in large number in Pakistan & recently from Gor Khutree site (Peshawar).
Ghaznavids coins are found in two different styles, one is typical central Asai Fabric with Arabic inscription and the other in the Indian style including the horseman with Nagri script.
Ghorids Dynasty:
The Ghorids Muslim dynasty came into power and established their rule in India and Pakistan with capital at Dehli.
Slave Dynasty:
The Ghorids were fallowed by Slave (Muslim) dynasty, struck his silver
“ Tankah” based on Tola weight (96 ratios) and billon of the slave dynasty the Kings 1290-1320 AD (Muslim) dynasty came to power. He introduced the square coins also beside “Tankah”.
Khiljis Dynasty:
The Khiljis dynasty fallowed by Muslim Tughlaq, who also followed Ghorids & Slave dynasty 1320-1413 dynasty & he received the total of the “ Prince of moneys” in the history of coins. He made several changes in great variety. His coins falls into deferent group.
Coin I: This category of coins are assigned to his father Known as
“Commemorative issues” stroking gold and silver.
a. Coin II: In this Class coins are known as “ Normal Issues” showing Great variety.
b. Coin III. Quranic inscriptions were appeared again on this issue.
c. Coin IV. Gold “Tankah” was increased with weight and called “Dinar” and also its denomination of half Dinar.
d. Coin V. Token Currency issued called “Dirham”.
Syyids:
The Tughlaq were succeeded by Muslim, Syyids (1414-1445) dynasty. They also issued special coins called “Bahluli” which become the principal coin of the period.
Suri Dynasty:
Sher Shah Suri expelled the Mughal King in (1538) and laid the foundation of the Suri dynasty. He issued large number of coins and called as Rupaya (Rupee) he also introduced a new copper coin called (Paisa) which retained by Mughal king Akbar under different name the “Dam” the later Mughal (Muslim) kings after Humayun 1555 AD introduced different coins with different inscription in very great verities. They also issued struck round and square coins in gold and silvers while thin copper coins are rare.
During Jehangir time even particular Mint and some were issued in the name of his beloved Queen Nur-Jehan born in Taj Mahal. After the disintegration of great Mughal dynasty. The Durrani Muslims family came to power they also included Persian couplets mint name, reginal dates, and with legal notices. This dynasty lost up to 1881 AD.
Earliest Islamic Monuments in Pakistan
The construction of their phase of
Translation, An Analytical Study
Since remote antiquity, the architect-masons of Iran, Central Asia and Indo-Pak sub-continent faced the problem of transforming a square chamber into a circular base for the reception of a hemispherical superstructure. Visualizing the scope of the problem, they devised and used various techniques and, gradually through years of experience gained through diverse building activities, achieved the solution of the problem—the arched squinch system.
Fischer has documented and explained numerous examples of these architectural contrivances used in the Buddhist, Sassanians, Hindu and Muslim monuments in his survey report on Afghanistan, and in his book on the religious and domestic .. secular architecture of the Indo-Pak sub-continent. He has described thirty different architectural devices for the construction of the zone of transition between the chamber and the dome. Among these, his types, #. 26-27 and 29-30 greatly help us in understanding the process of technical development from a simple corner stone-plate to the fully developed arched squinches.
Following is a description of some of the earliest domed mausoleums in Pakistan and the construction of their zone of transition. It is important to mention here that they are not dealt with in a chronological sequences, for all of them except the tomb of Khalid Walid are dated to the 12th – 13th centuries on the basis of their architectural style and decoration.
The tomb of Muhammad Harun, an Arab governor of Makran in the early years of the 8th century A.D, is regarded to be the earliest Muslim tomb in Pakistan. This brick structure is square in plan and the square chamber is directly covered by a low dome. Externally, each side of the square chamber is divided into two parts. The upper portion is profusely decorated with various friezes in cut-brick work up to the parapet level, and the lower portion is parceled out vertically into three rectangular panels, each having mud plaster of a later period. Internally the tomb chamber is converted into an octagon by means of simple pendentives beginning from the ground level, which support the dome.
The second specimen in the series is the so-called tomb of Khalid Walid at the village of Khattichaur near Kabirwala. According to the local information, Khalid Walid accompanied the armies of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni to Multan and settled here. The tomb building is flanked by an oblong vaulted chamber on the north and south sides and occupies the center of a large rectangular fortified complex. The square-domed mausoleum has four entrance, three of which are now closed and presently only the eastern entrance gives access to the tomb chamber. The square tomb chamber is converted into an octagon by means of corner-arched squinches. The arched squinches are executed by lying bricks in chevron pattern and their spandrels are filled with triangular stepped recess niches, an architectural device frequently used in the Muslims movements of Central Asia. The squinches and their spandrels at the tomb of Muhammad Abi Zahid Al Hanafi, Abu Hurira, Baba Rushnai and the mosque of Talkhatan Baba are provided with similar stepped recessed niches. These niches are not merely an architectural device of fill an otherwise obtrusive gap in the zone of transition, their primary function is to transform the octagonal zone of transition into a circular base for the reception of the dome.
The oblong chambers flanking the tomb of Khalid Walid were once valuated by means of Sassanians squinches. As far as this architectural device is concerned, it is the only monument in Pakistan where we come across Sassanians squinches. We have architectural evidence from Central Asia, and Afghanistan, where Sassanians squinches are used, both in Buddhist and Islamic monuments.
The historical inscription on the Mehrab informs us that Khalid Walid tomb complex was built on the order of Ali Bin Karmakh, a governor of Multan under the Ghourid dynasty.
A group of four tombs at Lal Mahra Sharif graveyard in Dera Ismail Khan district is in a class by itself. All of these tombs are square in shape with an arch opening on each side except the qibla, where a mehrab is accommodated in each case. In three tombs the dome is directly placed on square chamber with the help of arched squinches (p1. I a). The arched squinches, as well as their spandrels, are filled in with overlapping courses of corbelled bricks. The corbelled brick course in the spandrels of the squinches converts the zone of transition into a sixteen-sided area, which facilitates a round base for the dome. Only one tomb is build in three stages and seems to be the latest in the group. In this tomb, the squire chamber supports a high prominent octagonal zone of transition, surmounted by a dome. The construction of the zone of transition of the tomb deviates from the traditional style used in the other three tombs. Internally, the squire tomb chamber is converted into an octagon by arched squinches like the preceding tomb. Above the squinches runs a row of sixteen niches (p1 II b) replacing the corbelled bricks courses as seen in the spandrels of the squinches of the first three structures.
The two tombs in Aror and Sukkur district are also worth mentioning. One of them attributed to Sheikh Shakarganj and other to Khatalud Din Shah, along with this attribution has been recently challenged. Both these structures are squire in outline and have a rich cut-bricks decoration. In surface ornamentation they shows close similarity with the toms at Lal Mahra Sharif and certain tombs towers in Iran. In one tomb the enclosed squire chamber is converted into an octagon by means of corner squinches, and their splendors are filled in with a few courses of corbelled bricks transforming the octagonal zone of transition in to a sixteen-sided structure.
The second tomb resembles the preceding one in every respect. Internally the corner squinches have miniature niches created with in the brick masonry and similar niches have been documented in many other buildings.
The last example of the series is the tomb of Sheikh Sadan Shaheed, near village Jalaran, on the Muzaffar Garh – Jhang road. This brick tomb is square in plan and is erected on a high platform about two meters above the surrounding ground levels. The fine cut-brick decoration gives this tomb a unique place among the early funerary buildings in Pakistan and shows the impact and continuation of the Hindu-Buddhist architectural decoration, which is not found on early Muslim buildings in Pakistan. Internally the square chamber is converted into an octagon by means of corner squinches, which have a few courses of corbelled bricks.
The preceding analysis shows that arch squinches and corbelled brick courses have been used in the construction of the zone of transition. However, in the tombs of Lal Mahra Sharif both arched squinches and overlapping courses of corbelled brocks have been used in converting the square chamber into octagon. The co-existence of these two architectural devices, the arched squinches and the brick courses, in the formation of the zone of transition, suggests the antiquity of one of the methods and there can be little doubt that this is the corbelling system.
It is generally assumed that, prior to the advent of Islam in the sub-continent, buildings were usually constructed on the traditional terabit or corbelling method. The Muslims brought with them the idea of true arch construction. The local mason, trained for generations in the construction of pre-Muslim religious and secular buildings on traditional designs, was called upon to erect religious and domestic edifices for their Muslim patrons. Having no experience in arcuate system, the native architect mason was left with no choice but to use both the architectural contrivance of the arch introduced by the Muslims, and the indigenous technique of corbelling, in the early phase of Muslim architecture. After gaining experience in various building projects, they covered large and spacious square rooms with domes by means of corner-arched squinches. However, the older technique was not altogether discarded and we come across many later buildings where it co-existed with arched squinches.
In the construction of the squinches and the zone of transition, the fore mentioned mausolea in Pakistan closely resemble many monuments in Central Asia, dated to the 11th – 13th centuries. Stepped corbelled brick courses, employed in the squinches and the zones of transition of these monuments, have been described using various terms, such as “Stalactite” , “Corbelled” or “Projecting pedentives” , “Stufen pendentifs” or “ pendentif encorbellant”. Art-Historians describing Central-Asian buildings have usually called such devices “Parus” which means a honeycomb pattern.
In the mosque of Hakim –al-Termezi, the Daya Khatun Caravanserai, a tomb at Kassan and the tomb of Muhammad Basharo, the domes rests directly on corbelled brick courses executed in the shape of an inverted triangle. Similarly the dome of the mosque at Khara-Khoto was also erected on corbelled brick courses. This mosque lies in the south west portion of the outer city. It is reasonable to assume the Buddhist kingdom of Khara Khoto allowed Muslims to build a mosque, but not in the fortified city. Judging from the epigraphical evidence found in the excavation of the mosque, we can also conclude that Persians were living in Khara-Khoto city. Another variation of the construction of the zone of transition comes from the tomb of Alambardar and Astana Baba, where the dome is supported on arched squinches filled in by corbelled brick courses, and similar contrivances are also used in the phase of transition.
In the tomb of Ismail at Bokhara and Nasir bin Ali at Uzgand, the arched squinches are partitioned with a vertical rib while in the west mausoleum at Sayat, a vertical rib of herring bone patterns rests on a stepped niche framed by a rectangle. Another variation of squinch construction has been used in the tombs of Arab-Ata Tim, Duazdeh Imam at Yazd, Yarti Gumbad ar Sarakhs and Baba Hatim in Afghanistan. These squinches are trilobe in outline and have been designated muqarna squinches. Further examples of similar trilobe squinches, or their complicated derivatives can be found in Iran or Afghanistan.
The spanning of the corner of two walls meeting at right angles began in early centuries of the Christian era in Gandhara and Central Asia. The Buddhist architecture of these regions played a vital role in the construction of the zone of transition and the dome. In the Buddhist architecture of Gandhara, different techniques are documented to have been in vogue in converting a square cell into a circular base for the dome. In the Buddhist monasteries at Takht Bhai, Thareli and Kshmir Smast, pre formed schist slabs have been used to span the corner of two walls and subsequently facilitated a round base for the construction of the dome. In the Buddhist vihara at Sanghao, another technique has been used. In this case, instead of a single schist slab, overlapping projected stone blocks have been used to bridge the corners for the reception of the dome.
The Buddhist establishments of Central Asia speak of their own building techniques, but the main problem remains the same, the conversion of square rooms into a circular base for a dome. In the Buddhist ruins as Khotscho and Qunduz, Sassanians squinches have been used to transform a square room into a circular ring for the hemispherical superstructure. In the Ilikoel temple, a simple inverted triangular structure, the so-called “Turkish Triangle” have been employed to transform the square chamber into an octagon.
After the decline of Buddhism in Gandhara and the adjoining regions, Hinduism revived once again under the Hindu Shahi dynasty which held sway over Gandhara and the Punjab. (This dynasty was finally ousted from the political scene by Sultan Mahmud Ghazni in 1026 A.D). During the reign of the Hindu Shahis, numerous temples were erected in N.W.F.P and the salt range in Punjab. Scholars have different opinions on the style of architecture of these temples and their chronology. Lohuizen-de-Leeuw has grouped all these temples except the one at Malot, which exhibits strong Kashmirian affinities, under the name “The medieval Architecture of North West India”, while others see the development of separate school of architecture under the Shahi dynasty in Gandahara and the Punjab, and have termed it “The Shahi School of Architecture”.
The corbelling method of construction employed in the Buddhist monasteries of Gandahara was followed and used by the Hindus in their temple construction. In the Hundu temples at Kafir Kot (north) and (South) in Dira Ismail Khan District of NWFP and the temples at Kalar , Malto, Katas and Nandana in the salt Range in the Punjab and elsewhere, the domicile ceiling of the square cell is raised on several overlapping courses of corbelled bricks.
Dynastic changes have hardly influenced the art and crafts of the region. After the advent of Islam, the local workmen were employed to erect new buildings for worship and funerary rituals. They not only designed and erected new buildings for their Muslims patrons, they also modified and assimilated elements from Hindu Artistic traditions. Meister has fully explained this interaction between Muslims and Hindu traditions in his article on the “Two and Half Day Mosque” at Ajmer.
The above analysis fully explains the process of gradual development involved in the construction of the zone of transition between the polygonal chamber and the dome. A number of basic architectural devices were developed from indigenous building traditions, and other was borrowed from the neighboring cultural. These instructions between agricultural style and the decorative schemes of various ethnic and religious communities continued fro centuries and reached its culmination in the Muslim architectures of Central Asia, Iran and the Indo-Pak subcontinent.
Iranian Symbols in the Rock-Carvings of the Upper Indus Valley
Geographically speaking, the Upper Indus Valley and its affluent is a land of high mountains. This area, today known as the Northern Areas of Pakistan, is a region of impressive mountains like Karakorum, Himalaya and Hindu-Kush. Here is situated a big concentration of high peaks, extended glaciers and deep valleys. The Indus river, digging a number of deep gorges, running first between Himalaya and Karakorum and then, near Haramosh, changes its direction to the South keeping Himalaya on its left and Huindu-kush on its right. It is crossed by a number of routes, which, since at least the first century B.C., have served as trading links between China, Central Asia and the Indo-Pak sub-continent.
This mysterious world would have never been attracted the attention of the Orientalists until the discovery of thousands of rock carvings, engraved on the surface of rocks and huge boulders, found in various localities.
Although Sir A. Stein, the British surveyor, was the first to explore traces of ancient civilization in the upper reaches of the Indus valley in 1942, the real story of the discoveries only starts in 1979. K. Jettmar, German ethnologist, carrying out investigation since 1979 which resulted in recording of thousands of rock carvings and inscriptions in these valleys sandwiched by the Hindukush, Karakorum and Himalayan mountains.
The rock carvings are not only confined to the Upper Indus region, but are also attested long before elsewhere in other parts of the world. However the number of carvings registered and photographed by our German colleagues, so far, has never been found any where else. In fact, the importance of the upper Indus carvings is not their number but their multiplicity and different origins.
What exactly are these carvings? We may never be able to understand fully the origin and the specific role of all of them, it seems that however they played an important role in the religious, social and cultural life of their engravers. Some of the symbolic figures and other motifs carved on boulders may indicate decorative function rather than a cult.
The density and diversity of these carvings suggest the importance of this region on the one hand and a rich source of primary information for reconstructing history of the skill route from South Asia to China and Central Asia on the other. The building up of history o mankind would depend, however, largely on new research in these intermediary regions.
The commercial contact between Indian sub continent, Central Asia and China is confirmed by a number of evidences collected by our German, Pakistani and French colleagues in this respect. These materials are of various kinds and present different cultures such as Indian, Iranian, Chinese, etc. Among these carvings the most astonishing are Iranian symbols, altar, tamga or nisan and some Iranian motifs and characteristics in the animals and other carvings, etc. Besides them, we have a large number of inscriptions of Iranian origin. Almost all of them are already published by Sims-Williams and Humabch. The majority of the inscriptions are proper Iranian or sometimes Indian names. Really, they mention the locality name and the patronymic.
This record is augmented by the German and Pakistani explorers through their annual documentation. The materials we have recovered from Thor North, Shatial, Thalpan and other sites of this region and the exterior world….. attested by Indian, Iranian and Chinese inscriptions. Furthermore, the frequency of contact and commercial exchange between India and Iranian is reveled by the discovery of Iranian symbols.
K. Jettmar had discussed a small number of symbols such as a single altar, some tamgas or nisans and a few Iranian motifs. Following him, his German colleagues not only increased the quantity of these symbols through their explorations, but they also found variety of new symbols, I hope, shall provide more information about the contact of this region with the Iranian world.
Although Iranian symbols and motifs may seem relatively insignificant as compared to other such as those of animals, Stupas, etc. a detailed study of them has revealed an important aspect of trade in this valley. The Iranian influence is found in different objects, particularly in the animal carvings, but the most striking feature is the Sogdian inscriptions, altars and the tamgas or nisans. They are to be classified in four different groups: Sogdian inscriptions, rock art, altars and tamgas or nisans. I do not consider it necessary in this study to recall the first two groups, which are discussed at large by K. Jetmar, H. Humbach and N. Sims-Williams. Furthermore, there is nothing new to be presented in this regard. The aim of the present paper is, however, to focus on some of the Iranian symbols, tamgas or nisans and the identification of altars (by comparing them with those found on coins, ceramics and other objects) on typological basis. These symbols were found, so far, in five different sites of Chilas region (Shatial, Thor North, Helor Das West, Oshibat, and Thalpan) in Hunza and in Baltistan.
ALTARS:
The altars so far recorded in the Upper Indus region are those found at Thor North, Shatial, Thalpan iii, Oshibat and in Baltistan. The shapes of these altars are not similar but there is a remarkable uniformity in their upper part, called “horns”. These altars should be classified into two principal groups: (1) altars without ribbons and (2) altars with ribbons.
1. Altars without Ribbons:
This group presents more altars as compared to the second one. Except for two altars of Thor North, the rest were represented with an object in the center of the horns. The slight difference in shapes of these altars allows us to classify further them into two different types: (1) altars with object and
(ii) altars without object.
I: As compared to the altars of the second type we have more representations of this type. The object in the middle is generally marked with different forms…. Either wedge shaped. (Fig 1.1), square-shaped (Fig 1.2), cone shaped (Fig 1.3) or a bulbous thing (Fig 1.4).
Two of the Thalpan iii altars are represented with cone-shaped objects in the middle of the horns. These were already published by A.H. Dani. According to him the upper part may be a trident or building lotus. He says, “It shows two tridents on altars and comes from Thalpan iii. The lower one has banners to the right and left. But the tridents do not have just prongs. They appear more like the budding petals of a lotus. In that case they may also be taken to be budding lotus, which is another symbol of Vishnu.
We do not know exactly that dos these objects mean? Dos they represent a fire? The similarity between the altars of the Upper Indus region and those found on coins, particularly on those of Kushan, Kushano-Sassanid and Hephthalite, or altars carved on the pedestal of sculptures, may suggest to suppose that the object in the middle might be the representation of a fire. On coins, the flames are generally marked by wavy lines, a cone shaped object or a circle.
ii: The second type is represented only by two examples, found at Thor North (Fig 1.5,6). But the representation of this type is very common on coins, particularly on those of Kushan. The similar examples are also found on the seals of Bhita, India. One of these seals (n 99) should be dated, according to the triangular head of the Brahmi letters, to the 5th century A.D. The shape of our type ii is also similar to the pedestal of Tulsi tree, consecrated to Vishnu.
The second group is represented only by a single example from Thalpan iii, showing the upper part similar the other one engraved on the same boulder (see supra, i.i). A sigle piece of the ribbon is attached to its either side, right and left (Fig 1.3). The altars with ribbons or banners are also found on coins of the Kushano-Sassanids and Hepthalites. But the triangular shape of the ribbons that we have in this region have never come across so far.
Whether these are Iranian altars or Indian symbols? In the absence of full-scale data, the prelude conclusion will be uncertain. But by comparing with altars found on pedestals and coins, I suppose with great reserve that, these symbols may represent the Iranian fire altars. In this respect we can take the most beautiful example sculpted on the pedestal of the statue Surya (dated to 1st / 2nd A.D). Except for the object in the middle, the Surya image altar is very close to those of Shatial (un-published).
It is very interesting to note that Brahmi inscriptions accompany most of these altars. I am not sure that, in all these examples, both the carvings and inscriptions were the work of the same hand. But, as far as the two examples of Thro North are concerned (Fig 15, 6), they may be engraved by the same person. This conclusion is drawn from the degree of patination and similarity of technique of their carving. One of the two inscriptions mention purely an Indian proper name in nominative case (Isvaraguta) and the other one may be either an Indian onomatopoeic name Kala Crow, or the Indian word, meaning, “paternal uncle” It should be also noted that one of these examples is situated in hindou context – altar with a devotee, trisula and Brahmi inscription. The presence of these inscriptions also suggests that the above-mentioned symbols may present some things other than Iranian altars. This question remains open.
NISANS:
One of the most striking and original feature of the Upper Indus Valley carvings are the Iranian symbols, called tamgas or nisans. These two terms, particularly tamga, were frequently used for designating some Iranian and other symbols, normally found on the coins. Literally, these two terms give almost the same meanings, but as to be used as a technical term, it requires a clear definition. Actually, tamga is a Turkish term which means “a medal” while, the nisan is an Iranian word meaning “a mark” “ a signal” “a trace” or “a sign” etc. If we try to understand the circumstances under which these symbols have been drawn on the boulders by travelers, merchants etc. from different regions and thus leaving their signs or marks. It is due to these symbols and marks that they can be identified. It is for this reason, I think, that the tem nisan better explains the solution, and is why I prefer to use it in this paper.
Many symbols “nisans” were recovered from the rock-carvings in the Upper Indus Valley and the adjoining affluents. All of them are not of the same kind and may not be contemporary as well. They are classified in four main groups.
I. The first group, found at Thor North is marked with a single nisan. The symbol is engraved on a boulder which among other carvings, also contain a Sogdian inscription. This type of sign is generally attested on the Hephthalite coins but its origin may go to the Sassanid coins of Shahpur ii. The presence of the Sogdian inscription and similarity of the symbol to those found on the Sassanid and Hephthalite coins leave no doubt that it belongs to 4th or 5th century A.D. On the same boulder and on the left side of the above symbol, there is another one similar to the English letter “S”. As the patina and the technique show, both of them were engraved, probably, by the same hand. I cannot say whether this motif also presents a nisan or a trade mark, because I have not yet found similar symbols on coins. However, it is found on Chinese pottery. This is one of the most widely used element in the decoration of Pan shah (China) urns and is used either as a single motif or in a wide variety of composition. This sign also reminds me the ideogram, engraved on a rock at Ngri, Tibet.
II.The symbols of the second group were found in the Hunza carvings, at Helor Das West, Thor North and Shatial. The first one is already published but incorrectly identified by A.H. Dani. He says, “Nearby is a pedestalled pipal leaf with two upright horns. It is difficult to determine the purpose of these two symbols. The Hunza symbol is also called Gondopharean because it is mostly attested on the Parthian coins, particularly on those of Gondophares, Otane and Sanabares ii. But the earliest record of the use of this symbol may be that found on coins of Orodes ii struck in Parthia which can be dated to around 50 B.C. This symbol is generally considered to be a “sun and moon” similar symbol is also on Sogdian coins of 8th century A.D. Other types of symbols of the same group are presented in more evolved forms. But there is difference between the Thor North nisans and those of Shatial. Actually the difference is in the middle part of the symbols. At Thor North they are semi square or semi circle, while at Shatial all of them have a round middle part. The shatial symbols are probably carved by the same person.
III. The most remarkable symbol is that of a whirl of three hooks, turning in the same direction, almost identical to the Celtic triscele. There are six examples discovered so far: five from the site of Thor North and only one, an unfinished, from Helor Das West. But the three examples which should be quoted here were carved with full attention and interest. It is interesting to note that these three symbols, although quite similar, are presented in three different ways. The first one is a whirl hook with four dots in different parts and a small narrow hook, attached to the upper principal hook. The second one is like the first one, but it without a small extra hook and has single dot in the centre. The third symbol is identical to the second one but without a dot. This means that these symbols were either carved by three different hands or by a single person conveying different meanings.
The above symbol is already recorded on Sogdian coins (670 century A.D.) and according to K. Jettmar, it was also used as a heraldic sign in Sogdiana.
We do not know exactly where did the above symbol come from? But on the basis of comparison with other symbols or motif of the same type or nearly the same type, discovered from different areas might provide a clue for its basis significance and origin.
The first reference may be made, in this context, to a women skeleton ornamented with gold leaves. The principle of forming the leaf, particularly the middle one, is almost the same as the nisan of this region. The skeleton was found in Altai.
J. Reads published a catalogue of silver currency from Achaemenid Babylon. Almost the same symbol, as found on the Sogdian coins, is marked on one of the coins of the catalogue. A small circle with three hooks on outer circle and three dots in each angle of the hooks represent it. Similar symbols, without the circle, are also found on punch-marked coins.
Mention should also be made to another similar example found on a golden plate, recovered from a tomb at Kossika in the North of Caspian. The central part is formed by a triangle and the whirls by the representation of three griffins. The points or holes are here almond-shaped, decorated with the incision of gems or coloured pieces of glass. The central part is without dot. This plate could be dated to 7th / 6th century B.C.
Recently, in the article of B.B. Lal, my attention was attracted by one of the most interesting motif painted in black on pottery, commonly known as the painted grey ware. The motif is made with two concentric circles with a dot in the middle and three semi-concentric circles, equally added with dots, attached symmetrically to the outer surfaces of the concentric circles. The painted grey ware settlement, found at Hastinapura (India), was dated to 1100-800 B.C. The motif is almost similar to the symbol of this region. The only difference that could be made are the double parallel lines in the painted grey ware motif while the symbol under discussion is represented with more simplified form.
In central western Iran, some sherds of painted pottery (2400-2200 B.C.) were recovered, having motifs designed like that of Hastinapura pottery – multiple concentric circles with the addition of three other parts, attached to the outer surface of the concentric circles. The outer parts, unlikely, were not represented by a whirl hooks but some wavy lines.
Another particular type of decoration on the interiors of the bowls of Proto-Machia-Yao style (3900-3600 B.C.) (china) is based on the same principle. It has concentric circles that have a turned-back hook. There is a dot in the middle of circle and in each curve of the hook.
It may be emphasized that after studying physical features of the series of symbols and motifs, one can reach this conclusion that all these symbols were formed under two basic principles. The first type is made with two parts: the central ( a circle of triangle) and the outer (whirl hooks or wavy lines). In this type we can classify the Achaemenid and Sigdian coin symbols, the ceramic and and Kosikka plate motif. While the second type is marked by a three-whirled hooks rotating around an un
précised point. The nisans of this region and the Altai motif closely fit in the second type.
The identification of symbol as a nisan is based on the similarity of the Achaemenid and Sogdian coin symbols but the relation between all these symbols and motifs is difficult to understand. In fact, the real difficulty is the long gap between the time when the motif was in use and that when the symbol was first attested on the Achaemenide coin and later on Sogdian coins. Unfortunately, there is no evidence so far to fill this gap.
The exact origin of our nisan cannot be determined with surety. But,it is possible to argue that the formal similarity between all these symbols and motifs was conscious rather than accidental. It can be supposed that, in the beginning, this symbol was used as a motif but later the Achaemenid and Sogdian adopted it as an identification mark for their coins. The Sogdian as a heraldic sign used it also.
There is enough evidence to show that the Parthaians, Sogadians, Sassanians, and Hephthalieties, who successively came to this region not only carved their names & religious symbols but they also engraved their clan or tribalsigns & monarchic symbols.these overwhelming Iranian evidence gives us a surprising insight not only in political and cultural contacts between Central Asia and Indian subcontinent but the appearance of nisans and altars contact is not only confirmed by the Iranian symbols and motifs but also by the Sogdian and other inscription.
Introduction of Swat:
The charming Swat, a peaceful and fascinating tract in the lap of vegetative sky-high mountains, with eternal snow on their lofty crests, is an everlasting source of attraction for the visitors. Its beauty attracts tourists from all over the world to enjoy the soothing and serene sceneries, and the friendly behavior of its inhabitants. A visitor entered in
Pakistan would never be contented without roaming about Swat.
The area of Swat is 4000 sq. miles with a population of about 1250000. Its height is not similar but varies from 2500 ft. to 7500 ft. above sea level.
Colonization:
Due to its fertile soil and favorable climatic conditions, Swat has been the abode of various nations and subjected to historical events from time to time. Though this valley has an ancient history, but in the light of historical documents, its recorded history begins with Alexander The Great, who conquered Swat in 326 BC.
Alexander defeated Persia, thenceforth, he entered Swat via Kunar in 326 BC. Buddhism was in full bloom here. The Buddhist ruler fought the Greek invader, but was defeated. Having conquered Swat Alexander proceeded on along the Right Bank of Swat River. Reached Bandai in Nekpikheil, he crossed the river and camped near Manglor. He continued journey through the mountainous passes of Onra, and crossed Indus.
The well-known general of Alexander, Salukis, gave Swat to Chandragupta back in 304 BC. Another Buddhist king, Kanishka, shifted his capital from Peshawar to Swat so that he may be peaceful enough to worship his deities with full satisfaction. Then Raja Ram Batti and many other great personalities ruled Swat, and worshipped their gods with full peace and meditation in cloisters. Raja Gira was the last Buddhist ruler of Swat, who was defeated by Mahmood of Ghazni.
The Arrival of Afghans:
In eleventh century, Khwaja Ayyaz went on the Right Bank of Swat River and conquered the areas of Adenzee, Shamozee, Nekpikheil and so on. Mahmood went on the Left Bank of the river, when he reached Hudigram, there was the fort of Raja Gira, strongly built on a high peak. Mahmood commanded the conquest of this fort to an adroit general, Peer Khushal. The conquest of the fort was much more risky, but the order of the supreme commanderwas complied with.
Taking charge, the creative minded general besieged the fort for three days and cut off the underground connection of water link. On the forth day, he attacked the fort. The attack was a serious one and many soldiers were martyred, including Peer Khushal himself, but the fort was captured and since then Mahmood proceeded on and captured the whole Swat.
After conquering Swat, Mahmood settled two tribes of Afghan here, i.e. Swati and Dalazak, and went back. Both these tribes were living a happy life till they were driven away by the Yousafzai tribe of Pathans.
The Entrance of Yousafzai Tribe:
King of Kabul, Raja Alagh Baig, who was dethroned by his own tribe, called the help of Yousafzai to gain the imperial power of Afghanistan once again. All the chiefs, and Sardars of the Yousafzai came and supported him strongly.
They fought a battle against Tajack, and Alagh Baig became the King of Kabul again. Since then, Yousafzai got an authoritative position in Kabul court and army. The Yousafzai tribe was settled there permanently. But as the king was a Tajack, his wife was Tajack, his friends, and his relatives, shortly all of the concerned people were Tajacks, so the men of his tribe confided him. They told the king that he would be afflicted by Yousafzai one day, because Yousafzai were not from his own race and all the key-posts were in their hands, therefore, they should be removed.
Since then Alagh Baig schemed that the Yousafzai should be attacked at night while they are in sound sleep. His army did so, but the force of the king was defeated badly. When the elders of Yousafzai protested, the king cunningly expressed deep sorrows and assured them that some robbers might have taken the action. Alagh Baig now made another plan. He invited all the chiefs of Yousafzai and attacked them while they set to eat. All of the heads were killed, but only two of them, Sardar Malak Ahmed and Sheikh Malee, escaped. Both of the leaders migrated to Peshawar valley along with their tribe-men.
Having been there for a period of time, they visited their Afghan Brothers, Swati and Dalazak, in Swat, to win their sympathy. But they, the Yousafzai, were soon attracted by the natural properties of this area. It should be mentioned here that the Yousafzai learned the art of betrayal from Tajack. So they compelled the originally settled Swati and Dalazak to quit Swat, who crossed Indus and took refuge in western Hazara district (Even now, some of the remnants of Swati and Dalazak tribes are found in the remote corners of Swat).
Sheikh Mali distributed all the land among the male members of families of his tribe. According to this scheme, these families would change their villages after each decade, and the land of the new village would be distributed among the male family members. (Finally, the land was allotted permanently under the auspices of Bacha Sahib within a period of five years i.e. from 1924 to 1929, and the nomadic life of the residence of this area came to an end.).
Sheikh Malee introduced the units of land also. The smallest unit of land was Damray, while the largest unit was Rupee. Having no ruling authority, Swat was subjected to lawlessness and disorder. Internecine feuds were the common feature of this tract. When they were tired of mutual bloodshed, they wanted to choose an impartial man to solve their problems and disputes. For this purpose they called Syed Akbar Shah, but after ruling for five years he died. The next personality convened was Syed Abdul Jabbar Shah. He was a good scholar, and statesman with majestic port. But a well reputed learned man, Sandakay Mullah soon blamed him as Qadyani (a person having belief in the prophet-hood of Mirza Ghulam Amad Qadyani), and so Abdul Jabbar left Swat.
In this connection, the other man was Miangul Abdul Wadood, the grandson of Mian Abdul Ghafoor (Sahib-e-Swat). The people entrusted Miangul Abdul Wadood with power in 1915 (But he was formally crowned in 1916 by the council (JARGA) of the chiefs of Swat in the grassy ground of Kabal). (He was the man of vigor and high determination. Formerly, he was the ruler of Swat valley only, but slowly and gradually, he expanded the border of Swat up to Gilgit. Later on he retired and his elder son, Miangul Abdul Haq Jehanzeb was crowned as the “Wali of Swat”. Ruling time of Jehanzeb is considered as the golden period in the history of Swat. All of his reforms i.e. schools, colleges, hospitals, roads, and other communication system were matchless. There was a complete peace and order in Swat. But having the foresight of the future politics and the reaction of the nation, he gave up the ruling power in 1969.
It is painful to recount the events of the recent past. The fascinating valley of swat, during the Ex-Wali regime, presented a picture of the worldly paradise. The Wali of Swat, with unique sense of possession left no stone unturned in beautifying and developing each and every sector of Swat. He did his best, and had very lofty plans for the future. It had no match, and the visitors from all over the world had emotional attachment with the state.