HOW ARE EARTHQUAKES MEASURED?
The size of an earthquake is indicated by a number called its magnitude. Magnitude is calculated from a measurement of either the amplitude or the duration of specific types of recorded seismic waves. Magnitude is determined from measurements made from seismograms and not on reports of shaking or interpretations of building damage. In general, the different magnitude scales (for example, local or Richter magnitude and surface wave magnitude) give similar numerical estimates of the size of an earthquake, and all display a logarithmic relation to recorded ground motion. That means each unit increase in magnitude represents an increase in the size of the recorded signal by a factor of 10. Therefore, a magnitude 7 earthquake would have a maximum signal amplitude 10 times greater than that of a magnitude 6 earthquake and 100 times greater than that of a magnitude 5 earthquake. Seismologists sometimes refer to the size of an earthquake as moderate (magnitude 5), large (magnitude 6), major (magnitude 7), or great (magnitude 8).
Figure 6 shows how the Richter magnitude of an earthquake is calculated by measuring the amplitude of the maximum wave motion recorded on the seismogram.
FIGURE 6
Quote:
|
A method for calculating the epicentral distance and magnitude of a local earthquake (ML) ftom the wave amplitude recorded on a seismogram. The seismograph that recorded this seismogram is a standard Wood-Anderson seismograph. In this ex- ample, the ruler below the seismogram in (a) indicates the time in seconds between the arrivals of the P and S waves; here, S - P = 24 seconds. This difference between arrival times can be used to calculate the distance between the epicenter and the recording sta- tion. The arrival-time difference is shown on the vertical scale (b) and corresponds to an epicentral distance of about 214 km. The amplitude of the seismic waves, 23 mm, is measured on the vertical scale in (a); this measurement is noted on the vertical scale (c, on the right). The magnitude is determined by drawing a line that connects the points on vertical scales (b) and (c). This line passes through 5 on vertical scale (d), cor- responding to a magnitude of 5.0
|
The intensity of an earthquake is a measure of the amount of ground shaking at a particular site, and it is determined from reports of human reaction to shaking, damage done to structures, and other effects. The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (
Table 1) is now the scale most commonly used to rank earthquakes felt in the United States. If magnitude is compared to the power output of a radio broadcasting station, then the intensity of an earthquake is the signal strength at a particular radio receiver. In practice, an earthquake is assigned one magnitude, but it may give rise to reports of intensities at many different levels. The magnitude 6.5 April 29, 1965, Seattle-Tacoma earthquake produced intensity VII to VIII damage near its epicenter, intensity V damage 150 kilometers away,
and intensity I and 11 (barely felt) 300 to 500 kilometers from the epicenter (Figure 7). Although the greatest damage, and thus highest intensity, is usually near the earthquake's origin, damage to buildings depends on many factors, such as the type of construction, distance from the epicenter, and type of soil beneath the building. (See Structural Failure of Buildings, in the section titled What Causes Damage?) Therefore, maps of earthquake intensity commonly show complex patterns.
FIGURE 7
Quote:
|
Isoseismal map for the Seattle-Tacoma earthquake of April 29, 1965. The lines enclose areas of equal intensity as designated on the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (Table 1)
|