Napoleon Bonaparte

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Napoleon Bonaparte

With the outbreak of the French Revolution "European history merges into the history of one nation, one event and one man; the nation is France, the event is the French Revolution and the man is Napoleon."

On 10th November 1799, Napoleon ended the regime of the Directory by force. By influencing the two Houses of the legislature he got a law passed by which the office of the consul was to be created. There were to be three consuls. The first consul was Napoleon Bonaparte while the two others elected were Abe Sieyes and Ducos. Napoleon thus became a virtual dictator of France. Hayes rightly observes about it in the following words:

"As soon as Napoleon become the First Consul, he got awakened to his responsibilities. He studied the fundamentals of the Revolution very carefully and drew prudent inferences from the facts before him. He himself had witnessed some sensational events of the time. He had also realized that how horribly freedom was abused when it fell into the hands of the commoners. He clearly visualized that it would be detrimental to allow liberty, particularly political liberty, to the people. It was something different, if he allowed them to enjoy equality. Napoleon looked determined about it. He uttered the following words in this connection: 'What the French need above all things is equality, not liberty.' Hence as First Consul he made all efforts to take away freedom from the people but he bestowed equality on them instead."

Napoleon was very industrious and perserving. Chaplat, his Home Minister said about him that Napoleon could work eighteen hours a day. Ordinarily the meetings he presided over lasted for eight or ten hours. His administration has been assessed by the historians as something splendid, comprehensive and efficient. This was the result of his untiring work. His name will be immortal in the world history.

Napoleon’s Domestic Policy

Napoleon once observed prudently that his fame was not due to the forty wars that he had waged but his Codes. For passing laws in the country he appointed committees, consisting of judicial and legislative experts, learned men and specialists of great eminence. He himself expressed his own views before them for a long time. It bore happy results.
What Germany could achieve in 15 years, Napoleon accomplished in four months. The committees by their commendable efforts made a civil code in 1804. It placed the entire family under its head.

Napoleon was not in favor of complete freedom for women. Though Napoleon tried to take Haiti and Louisiana islands, he could not succeed in his efforts. Napoleon imposed restrictions on the freedom of speech, writing and publication. Only one newspaper could be published from one department and that also under the supervision of a Prefect. Every publisher was required to take a license. The Government was also rigorously vigilant over the work of any teacher, the publication of any book and personal correspondences.

The Civil Procedure of Napoleon is also famous. In it the accent was laid on compromise before litigation. This was known as the "Criminal Procedure Code." It consisted of laws in judicious proportion to the nature of crime committed. There was death penalty for creating disorder in the country besides imprisonment for life, branding, exile and confiscation of property. These laws were quite rigorous and deterrent. The jury system was introduced and the persons under trial could take the help of lawyers. The trial of a person was no more a secret affair. The roving judges and Assize courts dispensed justice with judicious precision and promptness. The culprits could question the witnesses, but they were not given freedom under the writ of Habeas Corpus.

The Commercial Code of Napoleon consisted of mercantile laws. These codes put together go by the name of ’Code Napoleon.’ No doubt it was not without certain flaws, but even then it provided a strong basis for the judiciary of France. Many amendments were made from time to time. Due to this great work done by Napoleon he became famous all over Europe. Not only this but he also came to be known by the people as the ’Second Justinian.’

The Civil Code placed a wife completely under the control of her husband. Women could not purchase or sell anything without the prior permission of their husbands. Either the husband or the wife could apply for divorce on the grounds of free love, immorality and infidelity etc. No one could give more than half of his property to any one. The rate of interest was fixed by an Act of law.

Napoleon established a Legion of Honor in his regime which consisted of 6300 members. They were appointed on grounds of merit. Napoleon was of the opinion that the mainstay of the republic should be in talented and meritorious people from various fields. Keeping this in view, he established the Legion of Honor. The persons who had served the nation or society were made its members.

Napoleon made several efforts to give back to the nobles and clergy the property which was forcibly seized from them during the period of the Revolution. He changed the conditions regarding land sanctioned by the church. This made numerous farmers jubilant. The peasantry looked upon Napoleon as their well-wisher. The local administrative units were placed completely under a central government.

Every department was placed under a Prefect and Arrondisement (the largest sub-division of a French department under a sub-prefect, and a Mayor governed the commune. All these officials were placed under the Central Government and they got these assignments directly from Napoleon. The police of the cities having a population of more than a lakh was also placed under the Central Government. The Elective councils looked after the collection of taxes.

Economic Reforms

Napoleon eradicated evils like black-marketing, speculation, profiteering etc. He punished the offenders very severely. In order to improve the financial condition of the country the Bank of France was established in 1800. It facilitated commerce and trade. Hayes praises this epoch-making venture in the following words: "It is one of the soundest financial institutions in the world." Napoleon improved the tax-structure of the country which made the finances of the government sound.

Reforms in Education

Napoleon perceived the importance of education in a democratic set-up. As soon as he came into power, he put in his best efforts for the spread of education. He based his educational policy on three principles:

(i) Loyalty to the Crown,
(ii) Faith in Christianity
(iii) dutiful attitude towards the rules of the department of education and the universities.

Primary schools were established in every commune. They were placed under the supervision of the Prefects and sub-prefects. Many secondary or grammar schools were established. Latin and French were taught in these schools. These institutions were aided by public funds but were supervised by the Government. There were also institutions for higher education. They were known as Lycées. The government appointed the members of their teaching staff. There were special schools imparting specialized education to the students - crafts, military science, civil service, administration etc. They were known as Art Schools. A school established in Paris imparted education in pedagogy to the new teachers. A university was established in France in 1808. Its purpose was to maintain a universal standard in education. Public education and establishment of schools was inconceivable without its prior recognition. Napoleon himself appointed its high officials.

Religious Policy of Napoleon

According to the Constitution of 1791, a constitutional Catholic Church was established as per the provisions of the constitution of the country. A compromise between Napoleon and the Pope Pius VII in 1802 gave Napoleon the power to confiscate religious states and donations made to the clergy. He was also involved in the destruction of monasteries. The Government appointed only those clergymen who were of a higher order and the Pope confirmed such appointments except those who had a stained past with an immoral or atheistic background. The higher clergymen appointed those of lower rank.

This compromise empowered the government to frame regulations relating to the church with a view to ensuring social security and order. Later on it bred discord between the administration and the clergy resulting in bad relations and protracted hostilities against each other. The special privileges granted to them by the Pope were not available in France. This reduced the freedom of the clergy in the country.

For the assembly of the clergies it was incumbent on their part to take the prior permission of the First Consul. No clergymen could possibly leave his parish according to the current law. For these reasons there were clashes between these two episcopacies which proved detrimental for both the institutions. Anyway Napoleon’s compromise with the Pope remained the foundation stone for the link between the two for about a century.

Napoleon himself was not the follower of any particular faith, but he thought he saw something bewildering like glimpses of omnipotent God when he raised his eyebrows to watch the divine grandeur of the stars scintillating in the sky or when he heard the bells of the Cathedrals tolling enchantingly. He was perfectly conscious of the necessity of religion in a social set-up but worked at shaping religion according to his perceptions.

Public Affairs of Napoleon

Napoleon tried to promote art and literature of France. Once he observed:

"People complain that we have no literature. That is the fault of the Minister of the Interior."

While art and literature flowered in England and Germany, France produced only two popular figures of literature: Chateau Briaud and Madame De Stael, the daughter of Necker. Even their eminence could not satisfy the fancy of Napoleon. By one of his orders a list was drawn up bearing the names of the ten top genius of the country - painters, sculptors, poets, writers, musicians, architects. State patronage was extended to them. Napoleon adopted such measures as would give a fillip to art and literature in his time.

Napoleon established a society for the encouragement of national industries for promoting art and craft. This society traded in cotton, silk, sugar and wool. Napoleon had many roads, bridges and dams constructed in his time. There were 229 big roads, and 30 of these stretched from Paris to the farthest points of the state. There was an elaborate network of canals for purposes of irrigation. Old canals were repaired in time and the new ones dug. The port towns of Toulon and Hanover were made more commodious. Moreover, a nice arrangement for their safety was made by Napoleon.

The royal palaces at St. Cloud, Fountainbleau and Rambouillet were renovated and refurnished which enhanced the grandeur and splendor of the state. Paris could now boast of spectacular Boulevards and the Louvre having the rare specimens of prodigious works of art. Soon the metropolis became a fashionable center for the people to see.

The population of Paris doubled. The government tried to provide employment to the jobless people of France. Napoleon got interested in this project. Once he declared:

"There are many out of work - shoe-makers, hatters, tailors and saddlers. See to it that five hundred pairs of shoes are made every day ... We must produce work ... Get on with the cutting of the Qureq canal, with construction of the Quai Desaix and the paving of the back streets."

Foreign Policy of Napoleon

Napoleon had to wage many wars to achieve military eminence. Many Frenchmen were sacrificed at the altar of these wars, and, in this regard, Napoleon transcended all limits of atrocity. He considered the good of France and left no stone unturned to realize this ideal. It was for this that his enemies decried him as a barbarian, tyrannical destroyer and an ambitious ruler. The Napoleonic empire had reached the climax of its glory during 1804-1811. After this one saw it decline.

"He wanted to make France a La Grande Nation of Europe and for this a spirited and a vigorous foreign policy of constant militarism was very essential," says Hazen. Napoleon was a born soldier. Owing to his military skill he made a name for himself. He earned widespread popularity in the world. His ambitions knew no bounds. Hence it became imperative on his part to have a dynamic foreign policy - a policy which might add to his greatness. He strongly felt that his countrymen desired international glory and military successes. It led him to pledge the reorganization of the revolutionary trends and strengthen the power, and for this it was absolutely necessary for him to adopt militarism.
Continental System and War with England

The continental system is one of the important aspects of his foreign policy. He wanted to defeat the English - a nation of traders. He established toll barriers in France and her tributary States with a view to levying heavy duties on British goods which diminished their trade. England could never have dreamt of this kind of maltreatment on the part of Napoleon after signing the Treaty of Amines. When Napoleon looked determined in his resolve against British interest, England broke the terms of the Treaty. Even after this Napoleon did not change his policy. He was bent upon boosting French trade after destroying the trade and commerce of England. Therefore, he established the Continental System and compelled the European nations to accept it, but Napoleon was not successful in his efforts. This plan became a prominent factor in his downfall.

Now England was the only powerful country against which he had to direct his armies. Napoleon persuaded the Czar of Russia into organizing Armed Neutrality consisting of countries like Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Denmark. The purpose was to prevent England from making searches, an obnoxious practice in their ports. The English while making searches would forfeit the goods of other countries. The English General had destroyed the naval power of Denmark by bombarding Copenhagen. This tore the Armed Neutrality into shreds.

Some of the reasons for his downfall are:

i. Napoleon’s Ambitious Nature

The sky was the limit for Napoleon. His soaring ambition was the main cause of his downfall. The mainstay of his empire was his military power. He extended his empire to an unwieldy size for the fulfillment of his ambition. He even started dreaming of dominating the whole world by establishing a world empire, like Alexander the Great. With the rise of his power, his ego inflated tremendously. The belief in the infallibility of his judgment had become the great defect of his nature. He never paid any heed to the counsel of others. He did not think it worthwhile to consult seasoned diplomats, like Talleyrand and Fouche, who were well known for their experience and foresight in diplomacy. His judgments were often faulty although he was gifted with prodigious intelligence and sharp imagination. Despite all this his intelligence was limited. It was next to impossible for him to do justice to all the things he had in hand. He had his finger in every pie - some really important things to handle, others of variegated nature. There is no wonder that he failed in certain matters.

ii. Napoleon’s Power of Arms

According to one historian, "Napoleon used to say that God marches with the biggest battalions, and when the armies of the enemies became bigger than his own, God was bound to march along with them and that was to result in their victories."

Napoleon’s empire was based only on military strength. He had recruited a large number of men by force. He could not get men of the right age for his army. So he was compelled to recruit raw youths. This proved fatal for the nation. The French, now, looked down upon his militarism. Therefore, Napoleon had to recruit foreigners - the Dutch, the Italians, the Poles, and the Germans. Generally the expenses for the up-keep of his army were to be met by the people of the countries under him. It made them hate Napoleon. Gradually the Russians, the Prussians and the Austrians trained their men who, in the days to come, were able to dent the French military pride. The naval power of England had always been her strength. Napoleon was defeated at several places because of the strong naval power of England.

Napoleon had introduced the Continental System in Europe which banned the entry and movement of British ships in European ports. This blockade was created for ships of neutral countries which came via England. Napoleon adopted despicable and stringent measures to carry out this policy. It alienated him from the sympathies of the people under him. The Continental System ultimately resulted in his invasion of Portugal, Spain and Russia and the maltreatment of the Pope.

The Pope rejected the Continental System of Napoleon. This infuriated the French dictator and he arrested religious dignitaries in his kingdom.

The Pope in a decree declared him an atheist, accusing him of blasphemy. The people of Europe opposed him bitterly. Catholics started hating Napoleon.

Napoleon’s Policy towards Spain and Russia

Smuggled goods from England occupied the markets of Spain. Napoleon decided to take over Spain. The King was pensioned off to Italy. And Napoleon’s brother was made the King of Spain. The Spaniards were annoyed at this. Although Napoleon was aware of the deadly cold of Russia, he invaded it. This campaign hampered his military strength. His men were killed in large numbers.

The People’s Sentiments

Napoleon was called the child of the revolution. His egoistic autocracy curbed the spirit of Revolution. He used to say: "The crown of France was lying on the ground, I picked it with my sword." However, the people of France suspected his intentions.

Napoleon regenerated France, but destroyed many who came in the way of his ambitions. He desired to conquer the world and rule it as a world conqueror. If only Napoleon could curb the tide of his ambition he would have certainly, made himself the world missionary. In Napoleon resided the amazing quality of doing universal good to people. However, there are some who maintain that Napoleon did not deserve any respect. "Granted that beneath all his imperial bluff there had been solid achievements, still, they were purely material, and constantly obtained at the expense of the variety and initiative.