Human And Economic Geo.Notes.
 

Salam to all. guys i am starting the notes of paper 2 now onwards.i will request senior members for rectifications of mistakes and juinor members to contribute with me in this whole process.

i pray to ALLAH PAK for giving me strength to complete these notes and guide me to provide you true and authentic information.if i do any mistake than i hope HE will forgive for that.AMEEN.



[B][U][CENTER]HUMAN GEOGRAPHY [/CENTER][/U][/B]



[B][U]THEORY OF DETERMINISIM[/U][/B]

[url=http://www.google.com.pk/url?q=http://geography.about.com/od/culturalgeography/a/envdeterminism.htm&sa=U&ei=n2NPTpySMaSj4gSjveyoBw&ved=0CBAQFjAA&usg=AFQjCNFq1czD3W2oEFwdq_-aW6NYzmSHhw]Environmental Determinism - The Controversy of Environmental Determinism[/url]




[B][U][CENTER]CULTURES, ENVIRONMENTS, AND REGIONS [/CENTER][/U][/B]
*

[B] INTRODUCTION [/B]

*
Culture is an all-encompassing term that defines the tangible lifestyle of a people and their prevailing values and beliefs. The concept of culture is closely identified with anthropology. Over more than a century ago most anthropologists believed that culture was learned. However, recent advances in sociobiology and related fields suggest that certain behaviors may be genetically deter-mined, so that culture has an "instinctive" component as well as a "learned" one. This chapter discusses the development of culture, the human imprint on the landscape, culture and environment, and cultural perceptions and processes. The key points covered in this chapter are outlined below.

[B][U]Culture and Human Geography [/U][/B]


The concept of culture lies at the heart of human geography. Locational decisions, patterns, and landscapes are fundamentally influenced by cultural attitudes and practices. The concept of culture, like the regional concept discussed in the previous chapter, appears to be deceptively simple, but in fact is complex and challenging. The definitions of culture vary widely, as does our use of the word itself, but all refer in one way or another to humans—their development, ideas, and adaptation to the world in which they live.


[B][U]Components [/U][/B]


Culture is made up of four major components. The first of these is a [B]cultural trait—a single attribute of a culture[/B]—such as eating with certain utensils. The second component is a [B]cultural complex[/B]—a discrete combination of traits exhibited by a particular culture—such as keeping cattle for different purposes. The third component is a [B]culture system[/B]—culture complexes with traits in common that can be grouped together—such as ethnicity, language, religion, and other cultural elements. The final component, [B]the cultural region[/B]—the area within which a particular culture sys-tem prevails—is marked by all the attributes of a culture. Cultural regions may be expressed on a map, but many geographers prefer to describe these as geographic regions since their definition is based on a combination of cultural properties plus locational and environmental circumstances.



[B][U]
Topics [/U][/B]

Key topics in cultural geography include cultural landscapes—the human imprint on the Earth's surface. These create a distinct and characteristic landscape that reveals much about the culture presently occupying the area, as well as those that came before. A second key topic focuses on cultural hearths—the sources of civilizations from which radiate ideas, innovations, and ideologies. Cultural geographers identify both ancient and modern cultural hearths.
******** [B][U]Cultural diffusion[/U][/B]—the process by which innovations and ideas spread to other areas—involves several types of diffusion. Expansion diffusion may take the form of [B]contagious diffusion,[/B] where some item of culture is spread through a local population by contact from person to person. In the case of [B]hierarchical diffusion,[/B] another form of expansion diffusion, an idea or innovation spreads by trickling down from larger to smaller adoption units. [B]Innovations[/B] often leapfrog over wide areas, with geographic distance a less important influence. The early spread of the FAX machine is a good example of this type of diffusion. A third type of expansion diffusion is [B]stimulus diffusion,[/B] a process where an idea or innovation is not readily adopted by a population but results in local experimentation and eventual changes in the way of doing things. The Industrial Revolution, for example, did not immediately spread to pre- or non-industrial societies, but did stimulate attempts to mechanize local handicraft production.
******** The different forms of expansion diffusion take place through populations that are stable. It is the innovation or idea that does the moving. [B]Relocation diffusion[/B]—the spreading of innovations by a migrating population—involves the actual movement of individuals who have already adopted the idea or innovation, and who carry it to a new, perhaps distant locale, where they disseminate it. The spread of European emigrants around the world during the period of Europeanization is a classic example.

******[B] The topic of cultural perception*[/B]—the way that members of a culture view themselves as well as how they view other cultures—is a combination of tangible and intangible elements that help to define the personality of a region. We all have impressions and images of various regions and cultures, even though they may not always be accurate. Perceptual regions are intellectual constructs designed to help us understand the nature and distribution of phenomena in human geography. These perceptions are based on our accumulated knowledge about such regions and cultures. Perceptual regions can differ considerably, depending on the individual's mental maps of various communities and cultures.

******** The final considered topic, [B]cultural environment—[/B]the relationships between human societies and the natural environment—is complex. Environment affects societies in countless ways from the types of crops grown to the houses they build, but societies also modify their natural environments in ways that range from slight to severe. One thing is certain, however. While human behavior is not controlled by the environment (as the now-defunct concept of environmental determinism suggested), no culture, no matter how sophisticated, can completely escape the forces of nature.*

[B][U]OUTLINE[/U][/B]

[B]A. Geographical analysis of population
1. Density, distribution, and scale
2. Consequences of various densities and distributions
3. Patterns of composition: age, sex, race, and ethnicity
4. Population and natural hazards: past, present, and future

B. Population growth and decline over time and space
1. Historical trends and projections for the future
2. Theories of population growth, including the Demographic Model
3. Patterns of fertility, mortality, and health
4. Regional variations of demographic transitions
5. Effects of population policies

C. Population movement
1. Push and pull factors
2. Major voluntary and involuntary migrations at different scales
3. Migration selectivity
4. Short-term, local movements, and activity space [/B]





[B][U][CENTER]LOCATION, DISTRIBUTION, AND DENSITY[/CENTER][/U][/B]

*
[B][U] INTRODUCTION[/U][/B]

No event in human history has equaled the rapid increase in population over the last 10,000 years. This is in sharp contrast to the 200,000 years following the emergence of Homo sapiens in Africa, during which the earth's human population grew very slowly, its numbers rising and falling in res-ponse to the "traditional" controllers of population: environmental change, disease, and availability of food. As the last glaciation retreated and the Holocene epoch began, the amount of habitable space increased and unprecedented events began to occur in Earth's history.
******** The study of population is termed [B]demography,[/B] derived from ancient Greek words roughly meaning to "describe and write about people." [B]The focus of population geography is on the spatial aspects of demography.[/B] The key questions in geography are where and why there? These lead to some penetrating insights into population issues.


[B][U]Population Growth[/U][/B]


The dominant issue in population geography remains growth. The world's population is currently growing at a rate that is more than ten times the total estimated world population at the beginning of the Holocene and the bulk of this growth is occurring in the world's poorer countries. The Earth's environments and natural resources are strained as never before by the needs of a mush-rooming human population, a population that has more than doubled in the last 50 years. Problems resulting from unprecedented population growth became especially acute in the twentieth century. A continued high rate of population growth in the twenty-first century can have a calamitous im-pact, causing irreversible damage to the natural systems on which we depend for our existence and survival.



[B][U]Population Distribution[/U][/B]


From the beginning, humanity has been unevenly distributed over the land and this pattern was* in-tensified during the twentieth century. Whether urban or rural, populations tend to cluster in certain areas (see text Figure 4-1) because, as you will recall from earlier discussions, much of the Earth is unsuitable for human occupancy (refer back to text figures 3-4 and 3-5). To handle contrasts of this type on maps, geographers use measures of population distribution—the locations on the Earth's surface where individuals or groups (depending on the scale of the map) are concentrated —and the density of the population figured as the number of people per unit area of land.
******** Text Figure 4-1 shows patterns of population distribution for the world using the dot method. It shows that the world's three largest population concentrations all lie on the Eurasian landmass —East Asia, South Asia, and Europe—each associated with a major civilization. It also reminds us that the overwhelming majority of the world's population inhabits the Northern Hemi-sphere.
******** East Asia, centered on China but extending to Korea and Japan, contains about one-quarter of the world's population—nearly 1.3 billion in China alone. The map shows that the population is concentrated toward the coast with ribbon-like extensions found on the basins and lowlands of China's major rivers. The great majority of people in East Asia are farmers.
******** India lies at the center of the South Asian concentration with extensions to Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the island of Sri Lanka. This is one of the greatest concentrations of people on Earth with about 1.5 billion people. It is a confined region (the Himalaya Mountains on the north and the desert west of the Indus River in Pakistan) with a rapidly growing population. By almost any estimate, the capacity of the region to support this population has been exceeded. As in East Asia, the majority are farmers.
******** Europe, the third-ranking population cluster, also lies in Eurasia but at the opposite end from China. This cluster contains about 700 million people, which puts it in a class with the South Asian concentration, but the similarity ends there. In Europe, unlike East and South Asia, terrain and environment are not as closely related to population distribution. Another contrast lies in the fact that the majority of the European population live in cities and towns, leaving the rural country-side more open and sparsely populated. These contrasts with the East and South Asian clusters reflect the impact of the Industrial Revolution on Europe over the last 200-plus years.


[B][U]Population Density[/U][/B]


Population density can be measured on the basis of several different criteria, revealing contrasting aspects of a country's demography. Text Figure 4-2 illustrates density via the isopleth method. The data in Resource B at the end of your textbook provide area, total population, and density per square mile for every country. One must examine such data with caution, however, since the high cost and organizational challenges of census taking often produce unreliable data. Arithmetic and physiologic population densities are the two most common approaches. These two methods become more meaningful and useful when compared with each other.




[B][U]PROCESSES AND CYCLES OF POPULATION CHANGE[/U][/B]

*
[B]INTRODUCTION[/B]


Population does not increase in an even manner from country to country. The differences include age, gender, life expectancy, and geographic distribution, and may be identified between countries but are more significant internally. A country that has a large percentage of its population at 15 years of age or below will have enormous needs for education, jobs, and housing in the years ahead. A country where the population is "aging," such as the United States or France, can face shortages of younger workers and problems with their retirement systems. The list goes on but you get the point: a population is far more than mere numbers. This is an extremely important chapter, and when you have studied it, you will have a much better understanding of the complex issues of world population.

[B]
Population Trends[/B]


Never before in human history have so many people filled the Earth's living space, and never has world population grown as rapidly as it has during the past 100 years. The population explosion of the past 200 years has increased the world's population from under 1 billion to approximately 6 billion. It took from the dawn of history to the year 1820 for the Earth's population to reach 1 billion. It now is taking only a decade to add each new billion. It is still possible that there will be 10 billion human inhabitants on the planet by the middle of the twenty-first century.

[B]Population Growth Rates[/B]


Rapid population growth varies over time and space. Europe's rapid growth occurred during the nineteenth century, the result of the Second Agricultural Revolution. At this time better farming methods and improved organization resulted in increased food supplies, especially to cities and towns. This was immediately followed by the Industrial Revolution, during which sanitation facilities made the towns and cities safer from epidemics, and modern medical practices became wide spread. Disease prevention through vaccination introduced a new era in public health. Death rates declined markedly—by 50 percent between 1750 and 1850—while birth rates remained high. The change is especially spectacular when viewed in the context of doubling time—the number of years it takes a population to double—which was 150 years in 1750 but only 35 years in 1850.

******** One effect of this increase in the rate of natural population growth was increased migration. Millions of people left Europe to emigrate to other parts of the world—North and South America, Australia, South Africa, and elsewhere. When European colonization began in earnest during the nineteenth century, Europeans brought with them their newfound methods of sanitation and medical techniques and death rates in Africa, India, and South America began to decline. Indigenous populations began to grow, and at ever-increasing rates. Today, South America's growth rates have declined, but Africa's remain high. As mentioned previously, the fastest-growing populations to-day are invariably taking place in those poorer countries that have the greatest difficulties providing the basic amenities of life for their citizens.
******** Disease and famine were the major controllers of population for the world as a whole until the last 100 years. Diseases still kill millions of people each year, especially infants and children, but the overall effects have been reduced, at least in many countries.


[B]Reduction of Growth Rates[/B]


Reducing population growth rates is a complicated and sensitive issue. In the richer, more developed countries, general modernization and education has resulted in lower growth rates. Therefore, these countries total populations do not approach those of the poorer countries. The benefits enjoy-ed by the wealthier, developed nations that have led to their slower rates of population have not been shared by much of the world. A key issue to the reduction of population growth rates is to improve the status of women and to secure their rights in society. In the Muslim countries of South- west Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, two of the regions with the highest rates of population growth, women often live in near-Medieval conditions or, at best, as second-class citizens. Tradition plays a powerful role, but the barrier to better education for women is the real key. In places where women's education levels have risen, there has been an accompanying decline in population growth rates; not to mention a general improvement in the well-being of the population.
******** The demographic transition model, which compares birth and death rates in a population over time, suggests that the world's population will stabilize in the twenty-first century, but the model may not be universally applicable. The sequence of stages of the demographic transition has been observed in several European countries, but what transpired economically and socially in Europe may not apply for the rest of the world. It may be unwise, therefore, to assume that the demographic cycles that have occurred in already-industrialized countries will eventually spread to the rest of the world.

[B][U][CENTER]Migration[/CENTER][/U][/B]


[B][U]INTRODUCTION[/U][/B]


Humans have always been mobile. Throughout history humans have sought new frontiers and the search still continues today. For more than 90 percent of human history there were hunter-gatherers, a practice that required frequent relocation. Such movement is called migration and while the reasons for such movement are different today, human mobility has actually increased in modern times.
Human mobility is of central interest in human geography because it is an inherently spatial process. Human movement speeds the diffusion of ideas and innovations. It intensifies spatial interaction and transforms whole regions. And as you will see in this chapter, it is often closely linked to environmental conditions.


[B][U]Why People Move?[/U][/B]


Many factors stimulate the migration process. They include armed conflict, economic conditions (real or perceived), political strife, cultural circumstances (such as linguistic or religious differences), environmental change (growing more common today), and technological advances (which makes information about destinations more easily obtainable and movement easier). Migration today occurs for various reasons but those listed are the principle ones.

Migrants move on the basis of their perceptions of particular destinations, taking into consideration both direction and distance. Direction, like location, can be viewed in two ways: absolute and relative. Absolute direction refers to astronomically determined direction and thus is what we think of as compass direction. Relative direction is more perceptual and often imprecise, W in the ewe of the Sunbelt. The residents of North Dakota, for example, would agree that it lies to the south and that Florida is part of the Sunbelt, but not everyone would agree that Utah is also. Different people have different perceptions.

Distance, like direction, can be measured in both absolute and relative terms. Absolute distance is the physical distance between two points usually using kilometers or miles; it can be read on maps using the scale of the map. Absolute distance does not change. Relative distance-measured not in linear terms such as miles or kilometers, but in term such as cost or time-bas different meanings for different people and cultures. It can change due to, say, a new method of transportation or the discovery of a shorter route. Research has shown that people's perception of both distance and direction can be greatly distorted and that distance particularly affects the accuracy of migrants perception of their destinations.


[B][U]Forms of Human Mobility[/U][/B]


Mobility of all kinds is one of the defining characteristics of a culture. The great majority of people have a daily routine that takes them through a regular sequence of short moves that geographers call activity (or action) space. The magnitude of activity space varies in different societies, and American society is the world’s most mobile. Technology has greatly expanded activity spaces, particularly in the wealthier, more developed countries.

There are three general types of movement recognized by geographers and others who study human mobility. [B](cyclic movement[/B]—movement that has a closed route—defines your activity space. When you go to daily classes or a job you are participating in cyclic movement.* If your trip involves a lengthy period of residency after your arrival—such as temporary relocation for college attendance or service in the armed services—you engaged in periodic movement. Both cyclic and [B]periodic movements [/B]occur in many forms. Finally, [B]migratory movement [/B]describes human movement from a source to a destination without a return journey, and is the most significant form of movement discussed in this chapter. A society’s mobility is measured as the sum of cyclic, periodic, and migratory movement of its population.


[B][U]Patterns Of Migration [/U][/B]

Rarely does migration take place in a single step, rather it usually takes place in stages. Rural-to-urban movement occurs in steps, often to a small community and then to a lager one and perhaps eventually to an even larger one in a region of more favorable environmental conditions. Migrants also tend to relocate repeatedly after reaching the end of their destination. Early immigrants to America, for example, often first settled in regions where relatives or friends were located, moving "West" after a time seeking land of their own or better opportunity, often moving several times before settling permanently. Some, of course, found the new surroundings not to their liking and returned cast or perhaps to their original source region in a counter or return migration. Almost all migration flows have this aspect.


[B][U]Factors Of Migration [/U][/B]


The decision to migrate usually results from a combination of conditions and perceptions that tend to induce people to leave their abodes, Geographers who study human migration call the negative conditions and perceptions push factors. The positive conditions and perceptions that effectively attract people to new locale from other areas are called pull factors (see Focus on: Theories About Migration). Push factors are likely to be perceived more accurately than pull factors, since people are more likely to be familiar with their place of residence (source) than the locale to which they are moving. Push factors include individual considerations ranging from work or retirement conditions to weather and climate. Pull factors tend to be more vague and many migrants move on the basis of excessively positive images and expectations regarding their destinations.

Our final look at the reasons people move focuses on the luxury of choice and the fear of compulsion. These may be classed as voluntary and forced migrations. There are different cases within each of these categories and it is not always easy to make a clear determination. In the case of the millions of Europeans who came to the Americas, most were seeking opportunity and better living conditions. These same motives carried others far from Europe to the African and Asian colonies.

The prevailing force was the pull of opportunity and thus for the most part, emigrants from Europe left by choice.
Several of the worlds largest migration streams have been forced migrations, which result from the imposition of power by stronger peoples over weaker ones. By far the most important of these was the Transatlantic slave trade, which carried tens of millions of Africans from their homes to the Americas, with enormous loss of life. From 12 million to over 30 million Africans were sold into slavery and nothing in human history compares to the Atlantic slave trade. Both source and destination regions were affected, with the African sources being socially and demographically devastated for generations. Forced counter migration continues today when governments send back migrants caught entering their countries illegally.*



[B][U]Permanent Relocation[/U][/B]


The past five centuries have witnessed human migration on an unprecedented scale, much of it generated by events in Europe. The voluntary migration of Europeans to the New World, the migration of Europeans to their overseas colonial empires (these two migrations may have totaled 75 million between 1835 and 1935), and the forced migration of Africans to the Americas, are among migration streams that have transformed the world. The immense impact of the forced migration of Africans during the slave trade on both sides of the Atlantic sets it apart from all the other migrations.

When early humans began migrating from Africa to Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas, they faced only natural boundaries. Rivers and mountain ranges may have presented barriers, but they did not stop the inexorable march of human migration. For today’s migrants, political boundaries, not natural ones, form the most difficult obstacles. Agencies that monitor the annual stream of human migration use the world’s political framework to keep track of migrants. Those who cross international borders are external migrants and those who relocate within their national boundaries are internal migrants. In any given year, internal migrants greatly outnumber external migrants. However, it is the external migrants who change countries’ vital statistics, affect their economies, and often influence their politics.

[B]External migrations [/B]took Europeans to America and other parts of the world; the arrival of the Europeans, in turn, caused other people to move (set text Figure 1-i). External migrations (authorized movements and organized resettlements, as well as refugee movements) usually occur after wars. Following World War II, Germans migrated westward from their homes in Eastern Europe and millions of migrants left Europe altogether to go to the United States.

[B]Internal migration[/B] involves relocation within a country. Such movements can also produce significant population shifts, even though the migrants do not cross any international borders. Internal migrations, involving major population shifts, have occurred in the former Soviet Union, the United States, China, and other large countries. Such movements are usually easier to accomplish because no inter-national borders are crossed. For the same reason, the numbers of people moving is more difficult to determine, at least in most countries.

We noted earlier that Americans are the world’s most mobile people. Etched on the U.S. population map are the effects of two historic internal migrations; the westward movement of the population as a whole, and the northward migration of black Americans from the rural South to the urban North. The West is still a major migration destination as can be seen in Figure 7-5. In the United States, the North-east and the Midwest have been losing population for decades, while the South and West have been gaining.


*[B][U]Controlling Migration[/U][/B]


Migration control and its attendant problems have become hot issues around the world. Efforts to restrict migrations are nothing new; media coverage, democratic debate, and political wrangling only make it seem so. China’s Great Wall was built in part as a barrier to emigration, as was the Berlin Wall and the fences along the Rio Grande—all evidence of the desire of governments to control the movement of people across their borders. Physical as well as legal barriers are placed in the way of migrants, but few countries have succeeded in controlling immigration effectively

[B][U][CENTER]POPULATION STRUCTURE[/CENTER][/U][/B]



[url=http://www.scalloway.org.uk/popu4.htm]Population Structure[/url]


[B][U]MODEL OF POPUALTION CHANGE[/U][/B]



[url=http://www.scalloway.org.uk/popu8.htm]Model of Population Change[/url]


[B][U]REASONS OF POPULATION CHANGE[/U][/B]


[url=http://www.scalloway.org.uk/popu9.htm]Reasons for Population Change[/url]


[B][U]CHANGING POPULATION GROWTH[/U][/B]


[url=http://www.scalloway.org.uk/popu12.htm]Changing Population Growth[/url]



[B][U]POPULATION DEPENDENCY RATIO[/U][/B]


[url=http://www.scalloway.org.uk/popu13.htm]Population Dependency Ratio[/url]


REGARDS SABAHAT :king

[QUOTE=SYEDA SABAHAT;343790][B][U][CENTER]POPULATION STRUCTURE[/CENTER][/U][/B]



[url=http://www.scalloway.org.uk/popu4.htm]Population Structure[/url]


[B][U]MODEL OF POPUALTION CHANGE[/U][/B]



[url=http://www.scalloway.org.uk/popu8.htm]Model of Population Change[/url]


[B][U]REASONS OF POPULATION CHANGE[/U][/B]


[url=http://www.scalloway.org.uk/popu9.htm]Reasons for Population Change[/url]


[B][U]CHANGING POPULATION GROWTH[/U][/B]


[url=http://www.scalloway.org.uk/popu12.htm]Changing Population Growth[/url]



[B][U]POPULATION DEPENDENCY RATIO[/U][/B]


[url=http://www.scalloway.org.uk/popu13.htm]Population Dependency Ratio[/url]


REGARDS SABAHAT :king[/QUOTE]

Sayeeda sahabat,sister where are the facts and figures..

sayeeda information you are posting already in books.. But there are many of the Qs which have not been answered..

can you please tell me regional Population distribution and also South Asian population population

And crops such as cotton,rice figures are not given in your posts..

Sister if you want I can give you mail me the notes at my email..Please help me ..

[QUOTE=amubin;344058]Sayeeda sahabat,sister where are the facts and figures..

sayeeda information you are posting already in books.. But there are many of the Qs which have not been answered..

can you please tell me regional Population distribution and also South Asian population population

And crops such as cotton,rice figures are not given in your posts..

Sister if you want I can give you mail me the notes at my email..Please help me ..[/QUOTE]


first tell me those question which have not been answered.

dear wikkipedia per search ker lo sara data mil jay ga. notes are not stored in my computer i type them,so sorry i cant mail you.

try to find out the figures yourself,i am too busy these days i will try to post them if i will find time.

regards sabahat

[QUOTE=SYEDA SABAHAT;344293]first tell me those question which have not been answered.

dear wikkipedia per search ker lo sara data mil jay ga. notes are not stored in my computer i type them,so sorry i cant mail you.

try to find out the figures yourself,i am too busy these days i will try to post them if i will find time.

regards sabahat[/QUOTE]

ok sister thanks for your reply.. whenever you feel comfortable mail me the notes at my emai address..My email id is [email]Alinamubin@gmail.com[/email]

[QUOTE=amubin;344058]Sayeeda sahabat,sister where are the facts and figures..

sayeeda information you are posting already in books.. But there are many of the Qs which have not been answered..

can you please tell me regional Population distribution and also South Asian population population

And crops such as cotton,rice figures are not given in your posts..

Sister if you want I can give you mail me the notes at my email..Please help me ..[/QUOTE]



[B][U]* List of countries by population 2011[/U][/B]


[url=http://www.google.com.pk/url?q=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population&sa=U&ei=A6hYTqOqFJCg-wap2tXADA&ved=0CBIQFjAA&usg=AFQjCNGtyrgE8_v__sARJd6wMvTONkVR9w]List of countries by population - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia[/url]



[B][U]Population Statistics/growth[/U][/B]


[url=http://www.wholesomewords.org/index.html]Wholesome Words Christian Website[/url]

from content go to mission and then harverd field statistics.

[B][U]World Crop Distribution[/U][/B]


[url=http://www.google.com.pk/url?q=http://www.pecad.fas.usda.gov/&sa=U&ei=BKlYTqLMFYue-wbIhfikDA&ved=0CBMQFjAA&usg=AFQjCNHVIWb0eehgUhbzdl64Kq-iKhunnw]Global Crop Production Analysis[/url]


regards sabahat

Thanks dear, I copied your Physical geography notes as well. these are really beneficial for me. Thanks for your ongoing contributions

[B][U][CENTER]. Urbanization and Globalization[/CENTER][/U][/B]
*

[B][U]outline[/U][/B]

[B][U]A. Definitions of urbanism [/U][/B][B][U]B. Origin and evolution of cities [/U][/B]
[B]
1. Historical patterns of urbanization
2. Rural-urban migration and urban growth
3. Global cities and megacities
4. Models of urban systems [/B]

[B][U]C. Functional character of contemporary cities [/U][/B]
[B]1. Changing employment mix
2. Changing demographic and social structures [/B]

[B][U]D. Built environment and social space [/U][/B]
[B]1. Comparative models of internal city structure
2. Transportation and infrastructure
3. Political organization of urban areas
4. Urban planning and design
5. Patterns of race, ethnicity, gender, and class
6. Uneven development, ghettoization, and gentrification
7. Impacts of suburbanization and edge cities [/B]
[B][U]



[B][U][CENTER]CIVILIZATION AND URBANIZATION[/CENTER][/U][/B]


[B]INTRODUCTION[/B]

[B]
The process of urbanization intensified the concentration of humanity that had already begun with agri*culture. Cities are a relatively recent development of human culture made possible by a stable food sup*ply. The need for central authority, organization, and coordination of effort produced the foundations for city formation. Social stratification was followed by the emergence of government, law, and the refine*ment of culture. The next challenge facing humanity is the success of cities with the opportunities and problems they present as we enter the twenty-first century.

Virtually everywhere in the world, people are moving from the countryside to towns and cities. This migration is happening so fast that the various agencies that monitor such movements cannot agree on the pace. The problem of undependable census data and inconsistent definitions make agreement all but impossible. There is, however, agreement on one point: in the twenty-first century, the world will be predominantly urban.[/B]


[B][U]Early Development[/U][/B]


[B]The first agricultural settlements were true villages and remained so 6r several thousand years. They were small and did not vary much in size and there was apparently no governmental authority beyond the village. There were no public buildings and no workshops. These egalitarian societies—a society that is unstratified socially and all members have equal status—persisted long after agriculture was introduced. Urbanization and the formation of states transformed egalitarian societies into stratified, functionally specialized ones. This process occurred independently in several regions, probably first in the Fertile Crescent of Southwest Asia.

The period between about 7000 B.C. and 5000 B.C. is called the[B] formative era [/B]for both the develop*ment of states and urbanization. The two obviously went hand in hand—in Southwest Asia. The egalitarian society had become a stra4fied society. Now there were priests, merchants, administrators soldiers, farmers, and craftspeople The city had become the focus of civilization.[/B]

[B][U]Diffusion in the Mediterranean Region[/U][/B]

[B]Urbanization spread from Mesopotamia in several directions. On the Mediterranean island of Crete, more than 3500 years ago, Knossos was the cornerstone of a system of towns of the Minoan civilization. Ideas about city life may have reached Greece from several directions but whatever the case, during the third millennium B.P., Greece became one of the most highly urbanized areas on Earth. The ancient Greeks thus assimilated concepts of urban life from Mesopotainia al well as Minoa, and the urbanization of ancient Greece ushered in a new stage in the evolution of cities. Some 2500 years ago they had produced the most highly urbanized society of their time with a network more than 500 cities and towns, not only on the mainland but also on the many Greek islands.[/B]


[B][U]The Roman Urban System[/U][/B]


[B]The great majority of Greece’s cities and towns were located near the Mediterranean Sea, linking penin*sulas and islands. When the Romans succeeded the Greeks as riders of the region, their empire incor*porated not only the Mediterranean shores but also a large part of interior Europe and North Africa.
The ancient Romans combined local traditions with Greek customs in building an urban system that extended from Britain to Mesopotamia. The Roman urban system was the largest yet. The capital, Rome, was the apex of a hierarchy of settlements from small villages to large cities. A transportation network linked all of the urban centers of the Roman Empire together by a network of land and water routes. Efficiency was a Roman hallmark: urban places were positioned a modest distance from each other so that they could be reached in a reasonable amount of time. Some of their surface routes still serve European motorists today. The Roman road builders created a grid of communications to link the empire together.[/B]


[B][U]Preindustrial Europe[/U][/B]

[B]Greek and Roman concepts of urbanization diffused into Western Europe, but Europe’s preindustrial cities were poorly organized, unsanitary, overcrowded, and uncomfortable places to live for the majority of their inhabitants. The adage of the good old days hardly applies. More efficient weapons and the invention of gunpowder forced cities to develop more extensive fortifications; fortifications that could not simply be moved outward. The greater numbers of people could only be housed by building upward, and four-and-five-storied tenements began to appear. For the ordinary people, the overcrowded cities were no place to be. When the chaise came, many decided to leave for America, Australia, and other parts of the world[/B]
[B][U]
Urban Stages[/U][/B]

[B]Cities evolve in stages. The traders’ mercantile city gave way to the factory-dominated manufacturing center, and the automobile enabled the evolution of the suburbanized modern city. Today’s post-modern cities reflect the age of high technology.[/B]





[B][U]
URBANIZATION AND LOCATION [/U][/B]


[B][U] INTRODUCTION [/U][/B]


[B]The site of a city is essential to early success and long-term survival. Many early cities would find them*selves losing their early site advantage as civilizations, and technology evolved and changed. Colonization and industrialization would transform ‘ Western Europe and the world from rural to urban with varying results. People migrate to cities, now and in the past, in response to factors that are often more perceptual than real.

Lifestyle may in fact be worse, not better, for those participating in rural-to-urban movement hi many countries today. The birth of the world urban map of the late 1990s can be traced to the impact of the Industrial Revolution on the medieval ‘and mercantile cities of Europe . In less than two centuries, Western Europe ’s population went from overwhelmingly rural to 85 percent urban. This aston*ishing transformation was the beginning of a worldwide process set in motion by colonialism and the diffusion of industrial know-how. [/B]
[B][U]Urban Geography [/U][/B]

[B]The study of how cities function, their internal systems and structures and the external influences on them is the field of urban geography. Urban geographers want to know how cities are arranged, what they look like, how their circulation systems function, how commuting patterns develop and change, how and why people move from one part of the city to another.

In short, how and why a city and its residents look, act, and change as they do. To do these studies, of course, you need to have urban places.
All cities’ are not equally successful, An urban centers location strongly influences its fortunes, its position in a large and productive hinterland—surrounding service area—can ensure its well-being. The hinterland reveals the economic reach of each settlement, the maximum distance at which people are still attracted for business purposes[/B]
[B][U]
Locational Factors [/U][/B]

[B]The answer to the question of why some urban centers are more successful than others is geography. When it comes to explaining the growth and success of certain cities, situation—the external locational attributes of an urban center; its relative location or regional position with reference to other non-local places—is often the key.

A city’s situation can change, and the world’s largest and most enduring cities have seen their situation improve with the times. Conversely, a city’s situation can also deteriorate over time. Exhaustion of resources, repeated crop failures, climatic change, and political developments all can change a city’s situation.

A second locational factor affecting the development of cities and towns is their site—the actual physical qualities of the place a city occupies. An urban centers site may have played a key role in its original and early survival, for example, as a defensive locale; but in modern times that same site may limit its growth and expansion. Air stagnation, depleted water supplies, or changes in transportation routes and means can reduce a previously advantageous site to a liability. [/B]
[B]Urbanization in the 1990s [/B]

[B]As a percentage of total population, urban dwellers are most numerous in the core areas of Western Europe , North America , Japan , and Australia . There are also remarkably high percentages of urbanization in several countries in the periphery. In addition, urbanization is currently occurring rapidly in many peripheral countries, especially Sub-Saharan Africa. Currently this region has both the lowest percentage of its population classed as urban and the fastest growing urban population in the world. Taking 70 percent and higher as the highest category, Mexico and Cuba are on a par with France , and Mexico ’s level of urbanization is higher than that of several Eastern European countries.
The culturally and economically diverse realm of Southwest Asia and North Africa displays re*markable variation in levels of urbanization. This variation is related to differences in national economics and cultures. Much of the realm, the Middle East and the Arabian Peninsula , is quite highly urbanized. Nucleation resulting from the oil industry has much to do with this situation.
Urbanization in South Asia remains low. For the realm as a whole, urbanization remains well be*low 30 percent. Southeast Asia , as a realm, is markedly low levels of urbanization (the city-state of Singapore is 100 percent urban; the only such country in the world). As a whole, East Asia is only about 36 percent urban, despite the rapid economic growth on the western Pacific Rim . [/B]

[B][U]The Great Cities [/U][/B]

[B]More than 300 cities in the world have populations exceeding 1 million. former map shows the concentration of large cities in eastern North America , Western Europe , and Japan . Several of the great urban complexes in these regions are the products of megalopolitan coalescence. The fastest-growing megacities, however, are in South and East Asia .
Many of the worlds most populous cities are found in the poorer countries, and it also indicates how fast individual cities in poorer countries are growing compared to conurbations in richer countries. Despite wretched living conditions for many of their inhabitants, cities continue to attract new residents by the millions. [/B]

[B][U]URBAN PATTERN AND STRUCTURE[/U][/B]


[B] INTRODUCTION[/B]


[B]From rather humble beginnings, the development of cities has produced a complex settlement pattern that is changing the face of the Earth and the way humans use and occupy it. A city’s spatial organization reflects the culture that built it whether that culture is traditional or advanced. The common denominators of all cities are growth and change. While it is doubtful that the urbanization experiences of the industrialized Western countries can, or even should be duplicated, in much of the world there is no doubt that urbani*zation is the next step in human cultural evolution.

Geographers have recognized that the relationships between cities and the surrounding countryside can be measured and mapped, Every city and town has an adjacent region within which its influence is dominant. Farmers in that region sell many of their products on the city’s markets, and customers from smaller towns and villages come to the city to shop and to conduct other business. The city’s dominance can be seen in many other areas of life as well, such as the surrounding trade zone or hinterland, the sur*rounding region from which people travel into the city for work, business, or pleasure. In general, large cities tend to lie farther apart than smaller ones; towns lie still closer together, and villages are separated by even shorter distances. Investigating the above patterns ultimately leads to the study of the anatomy of the city itself; its internal structure and functions.
Interurban Spatial Organization

The Industrial Revolution occurred almost a century later in the United States than in Europe. When it finally did cross the Atlantic in the 1870s, it progressed so robustly that only 50 years later America surpassed Europe as the world's mightiest industrial power.

The impact of industrial urbanization was felt at two levels. At the national level, there quickly emerged a network of cities specialized in the collection, processing, and distribution of raw materials and manufactured goods, and linked together by an even more efficient web of transport routes. The whole process unfolded so quickly that planning was impossible. Almost literally, near the turn of the twentieth century America awoke to discover that it had built a number of large cities.

In the United States, the urban system evolved through five stages of development determined by prevailing modes of transport and industry. Today’s period of high technology, still in the process of transforming the modern city, dates from the 1970s.[/B]


[B][U]Urban Functions[/U][/B]


[B]Every urban center has an economic base, with some workers employed in [B]basic (that is, goods-producing)[/B] sectors that satisfy demand in the hinterland or markets even farther away. These activities produce goods for export and generate an inflow of money. On the other hand, workers who maintain city streets, clerks who work in offices, and teachers who teach in city schools are responsible for the functions of the city itself. This is the [B][B]nonbasic (also called the service) sector.[/B][/B] Some people who work in a city, of course, do some of each. A mechanic may serve customers from a village in the city’s hinterland, where there are no repair facilities, while also serving city residents.[/B]

[B]This employment structure—the number of people employed in various basic and nonbasic jobs— reveals the primary functions a city performs. You should note that all cities have multiple functions, and the larger the city, the larger the number of functions. Some cities, however, are dominated by one particular activity. This functional specialization was a characteristic of European cities even before the Industrial Revolution, but the Industrial Revolution gave it new meaning. This was once true in America as well, but the situation revealed no longer exists, at least tothe extent shown on the maps. As urban centers grow, they tend to lose their specialization.[/B]


[B][U]Central Places[/U][/B]


[B]The notion of a hierarchy of urban places, discussed earlier, identifies urban settlements ranging from hamlets to metropolises and is based not only on population but also on functions and services. These functions and services attract customers from both the urban areas and areas beyond the urban limits Thus every urban center has a certain economic reach that can be used as a measure of its centrality—the strength of an urban center in its capacity to attract producers and consumers to its facilities.[/B]


[[B]B]In 1933, Walter Christaller [/B]laid the groundwork for central place theory. Christaller attempted to develop a model that would show how and where central places in the urban hierarchy [B][U](hamlets, villages, towns, and cities) [/U][/B]would be functionally distributed, based on their respective provision of central goods and services—goods and services that a central place makes available to its consumers in a surrounding region—as opposed to those universally available. While not totally applicable in the real world, central place theory helps to explain why, under ideal circumstances, small urban places such as villages lie closer together while larger cities lie far apart.[/B]


[url=http://www.cssforum.com.pk/304752-post7.html]CSS Forums - View Single Post - Guideline Thread for Geography[/url]



[B][U]Urban Structure[/U][/B]


[B]Cities are not simply random collections of buildings and people. They exhibit functional structure: they are spatially organized to perform their functions as places of commerce, production, education, and much more. Throughout the past century urban geographers have attempted to construct models that would account for the geographic layout of cities (see Focus on: Three Classic Models of Urban Structure). The task grew more complicated as manufacturing cities became modern cities and modern cities became postmodern. Today urban geographers identify superregions that they call urban realms, and they create models that show cities within cities.

Models of urban structure reveal how the forces that shape the internal layout of cities have changed, transforming the single-center city with one dominant downtown into the polycentric metropolis with several commercial nodes.[/B]


[url=http://www.cssforum.com.pk/304761-post8.html]CSS Forums - View Single Post - Guideline Thread for Geography[/url]




[B][U]
THE CHANGING NATURE OF THE CIVIC EXPERIENCE[/U][/B]
*


[B] INTRODUCTION[/B]


[B]The urban influences affecting the cultural geography of the modern world represent the end of a long evolutionary process resulting from the influences of different cultures with their goals and capabilities. A city, regardless of the culture where it develops, represents society, culture, opportunity, success, and failure. Europe and America are urbanized societies whose cities and cultures are changing within an urban environment, a condition not true in the developing world. The cities and urban places of the developing world represent the greatest challenge to traditional cultures as we approach the twenty-first century. Developing societies face the formidable task of retaining their cultural identities and traditional values in a rapidly changing world. On their success or failure rests the successful existence of much of humanity.

Two centuries ago demographers estimate less than[B] 5 percent [/B]of the world’s population was urban*ized. Today the figure approaches [B]50 percent [/B]and some regional differences and changes are striking, as in such countries as Germany and Belgium where [B]90 percent[/B] of the population lives in cities and towns. In some parts of the world, megalopolises are evolving from formerly separate cities. In others, mega-cities are emerging with populations that exceed those of many countries. In this chapter we will discuss these regional changes and focus on several of the critical problems rapid urbanization has produced. As you will see, the problems of large cities are cross-cultural; they differ in degree, not in ki[/B]nd.

[B][U]The Suburban City[/U][/B]


[B]For many decades the attraction of country life with city amenities, reinforced by the discomforts of living in the heart of many central cities, has propelled people to move to the suburbs and more distant urban fringes. Mass commuting from suburban residents to downtown workplaces was made possible in postwar times by the automobile.

As a result, the kind of suburbanization that is familiar to North Americans and other Westerners became a characteristic of urbanization in mobile, highly developed societies.

Suburban cities are not just self-sufficient, but compete with the central city for leading urban eco*nomic activities such as telecommunications, high4echnology industries, and corporate headquarters. In the current era of globalization, America’s suburban cities are proving their power to attract such activ*ities, thereby sustaining the suburbanizing process. Suburbanization has expanded the American city far into the surrounding countryside, contributing to the impoverishment of the central cities, and is having a major impact on community life.[/B]


[B][U]The European City[/U][/B]

[B]European cities are older than North American cities, but they too were transformed by the Industrial Revolution. Indeed, industrialization struck many of Europe’s dormant medieval towns and vibrant mer*cantile cities like a landslide. But there are differences between the European experience and that of North America.

In terms of population numbers, the great European cities are in the same class as major North American cities.[B] London, Paris, Madrid, and Berlin [/B]are megacities by world standards. These are among Europe’s historic urban centers, which have been affected but not engulfed by the industrial tide. The cities of the British Midlands and the megacities of Germany’s Ruhr are more representative of the manu*facturing era.

The industrial cities have lost much of their historical heritage, but in Europe’s largest cities the legacy of the past is better preserved. Many European cities have a Greenbelt—a zone of open country averaging up to 20 miles wide that contains scattered small towns but is otherwise open country. This has the effect of containing the built-up area and preserving near-urban open space. For this reason, European cities have not yet experienced the dispersal of their U.S. counterparts, and remain more compact and clustered. Modern CBDs have emerged near the historic cores of these cities.[/B]


[B][U]Colonial Legacies[/U][/B]

[B]South America, Southeast Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa share a common imprint in their colonial heri*tage. Everywhere that urbanization is occurring, there is the imprint of the colonial era alongside the tra*ditional culture. In these three realms, cities reflect their colonial beginnings as well as more recent dom*estic developments. In South and Middle America the fastest growth is where Iberian cultures dominate. Southeast Asian urban centers are growing rapidly, with foreign influences and investments continuing to play a dominant role. In Africa, the diversity caused by European influence in some, and decided lack of in others, makes it difficult to formulate a model African city that would account for all or even most of what is there[/B].


regards sabahat

[B][U][CENTER]ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY[/CENTER][/U][/B]



[B][U]ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES[/U][/B]



[url=http://www.cssforum.com.pk/74559-post1.html]CSS Forums - View Single Post - Geography Two - Economic Activities[/url]

[COLOR="DarkRed"][B][U]What is agriculture?[/U][/B][/COLOR]



[B]Agriculture, or farming, is the simplification of nature's food webs and the rechanneling of energy for human planting and animal consumption.[/B]


[B] To simplify, agriculture involves redirecting nature's natural flow of the food web. The natural flow of the food web is-the sun provides light to plants. Plants convert sunlight into sugars which provide food for the plants(this process is called photosynthesis). Plants provide food for herbivores (plant-eating animals, i.e., sloths) and the herbivores provide food for carnivores (meat-eating animals, i.e., jaguars). Decomposers or bacteria, break down plants or animals that have died. Nutrients from the plants and animals go back into the soil and the whole process starts a new[/B].

[B]What happens with agriculture is that this web is interrupted. Instead of having herbivores eat the plants, the plants are protected for human consumption. This means that not only are plant eating animals excluded from the food web, but also carnivorous animals and even decomposers. However, if a farmer is planting corn to feed their cattle, the cattle eat the corn to fatten up and then are eventually slaughtered for human consumption. Even though a herbivore (cow) is eating the plant (corn) the web in interrupted when the cow is killed for human consumption. [/B]


[COLOR="Navy"][B][U]Are there different types of agriculture?[/U][/B][/COLOR]

[B]Yes. There is conventional agriculture and sustainable agriculture (agro-ecology).[/B]

[COLOR="Navy"][B]Conventional agriculture,[/COLOR]

most commonly practiced in the United States, usually involves the following criteria:[/B]

[B]1) altering or changing the natural environment (removing trees, tilling the soil, installing an irrigation system, etc.

2)mono-cropping, or planting one crop (ex: only corn is grown in a plot).

3)the crops grown are nonrenewable- after harvesting, the plot is bare again and requires cultivation (tilling and plowing of the soil), fertilization, planting, irrigation (watering), and harvesting all over again.

4)diversity is eliminated in order to maintain uniformity

5)using insecticides and pesticides to keep insects and animals from eating the crops; these chemicals are not only poisonous to insects, animals and humans, they also pollute ground water, streams, rivers, and oceans.

6)using inorganic fertilizers to provide nutrients to the soil

a lot of energy and work for the farmer to maintain this unnatural farming system; nature is more aligned with diversity (it wants to be wild), rather than controlled and uniform. [/B]



[B]Here are some examples of crops which undergo conventional agriculture: corn, wheat, rice, bananas, soy bean, etc[/B]



[COLOR="DarkGreen"][B][U]What are the effects of conventional agriculture? [/U][/B][/COLOR]

[B]1)since the plot is stripped of its natural environmental features, the plants are vulnerable to disease, high herbivore predation, and soil erosion.

2)a decrease in bio-diversity means many animals lose their habitat and either relocate or become extinct.

3)after harvesting, the plot is empty, leaving the soil bare and prone to soil erosion.

4)the use of insecticides and pesticides pollutes the environment on many levels: the soil, streams, creeks, rivers, underground water sources, well water, the ocean, and even the air. When these chemicals are ingested (eaten) or inhaled, they can poison animals and people. This poisoning can cause severe illness and even death.

5)crop disease, drought (no rain), fire, or heavy rain-fall can destroy a crop, thus causing severe economic hardship for the farmer and even the consumer because when the quantity of a crop is low (when the supply is low) the price is increased[/B]



[COLOR="Purple"][B][U]Sustainable agriculture (agro-ecology)[/U][/B][/COLOR]

[B]uses ecological principles to farm, hence the prefix agro- to farm and ecology- the science of the relationship between organisms and their environments[/B].

[B]Agro-ecology involves:[/B]


[B]1)maintaining the natural environment and using ecological principles for sustained farming practices.

2)poly-cropping, or planting many crops together (ex: planting rows of corn, bean, and squash together rather than in separate plots, like in mono-cropping)

3)since many plants are planted together, and each one has a different harvesting period, the plot is never bare. This reduces soil erosion.

4)diversity is maintained and even increased over time

5)a diverse system of plants may attract several species of herbivores. Some of these herbivores like to eat specific kinds of plants. Predator species usually do not have a preference for which herbivores to eat. This predation keeps the herbivore population in check, thus reducing predation of any one crop.

6)Plants- such as citrosa, are natural insect repellents. This eliminates the need to use insecticides.

7)nutrients from each intercrop plant provide different nutrients to the soil, thus increasing its fertility (ability to sustain life).

8)less energy is required from the farmer because the agriculture system sustains itself.

Here are some examples of sustainable agriculture crops: shade coffee; multiple cropping in Germany- for example, they plant carrots, beets, and onions together in a plot; in Mexico, they do the same with corn, bean, and squash. In Italy, they plant both annual and perennial crops to create a diverse home garden; in other areas, they use cover cropping in orchards to inhibit weed growth, etc.[/B]



[COLOR="Olive"][B]What are the effects of sustainable agriculture?[/B][/COLOR]


[B]1)using ecological principles increases bio-diversity. Not only are animals' homes salvaged (saved), but the natural ecological system protects itself (sustains itself) from soil erosion, severe herbivore predation, and crop disease.

2)since insecticides and pesticides are not used, pollution and the harmful effects of ingesting these poisons are not an issue

3)since each intercropping plant supplies a different nutrient to the soil, less or (even no) fertilizers are added to the soil

4)this type of agriculture is aligned with nature and uses the principles of nature to sustain itself (there's nothing better than that!)

5)farmers experience less or no economic loss with this type of agriculture system because the natural environment protects itself from crop disease (due to diversity of species), soil erosion (benefits of intercropping plants with different harvesting periods), flooding (the intercropping plants absorb heavy rain-falls), droughts (the intercrops provide moisture and shade for each other), and fire (extra moisture and shade keeps plants from drying out and becoming more susceptible to fire).[/B]


regards sabahat

[B][U][CENTER][COLOR="Navy"]Location Theories[/COLOR][/CENTER][/U][/B]



In economics and geography, theory concerned with the geographic location of economic activity; it has become an integral part of economic geography, regional science, and spatial economics. Location theory addresses the questions of what economic activities are located where and why. The location of economic activities can be determined on a broad level such as a region or metropolitan area, or on a narrow one such as a zone, neighbourhood, city block, or an individual site.


[B][U]1ST MODEL[/U][/B]

[B][U]Johann Heinrich von Thünen,[/U][/B] a Prussian landowner, introduced an early theory of agricultural location in Der isolierte Staat (1826) [B](The Isolated State).[/B]

The Thünen model suggests that accessibility to the market (town) can create a complete system of agricultural [B]land use.[/B] His model envisaged a single market surrounded by farmland, both situated on a plain of complete [B]physical homogeneity[/B].

Transportation costs over the plain are related only to the distance traveled and the volume shipped. The model assumes that farmers surrounding the market will produce crops which have the highest market value (highest rent) that will give them the maximum net profit (the location, or land, rent). The determining factor in the location rent will be the transportation costs. When transportation costs are low, the location rent will be high, and vice versa.

This situation produces a rent gradient along which the location rent decreases with distance from the market, eventually reaching zero. The Thünen model also addressed the location of intensive versus [B]extensive agriculture[/B] in relation to the same market. Intensive agriculture will possess a steep gradient and will locate closer to the market than extensive agriculture. Different crops will possess different rent gradients. Perishable crops (vegetables and [B]dairy products[/B]) will possess steep gradients while less perishable crops (grains) will possess less steep gradients


The first model postulates that the intensity of production of a particular crop declines with distance from the market since transport costs increase with distance from the market and the locational rent is therefore lower. Intensive farming—which demands costly inputs—is only profitable where locational rent is high to cover costs, so intensive farming takes place only near the city.

Von Thünen's second model is concerned with land use patterns. Transport costs vary with the bulkiness and perishability of the product. Product A is costly to transport but has a high market price and is therefore farmed near the city. Product B sells for less but has lower transport costs. At a certain distance, B becomes more profitable than A because of its lower transport costs. Eventually, product C, with still lower transport costs, becomes the most profitable product. The changing pattern of the most profitable produce is therefore seen as a series of land use rings around the city. This phenomenon may be illustrated by a graph showing the varying locational rent of three products, the most profitable product at each point, and the land use pattern which results.


you can also view this thread

[url=http://www.cssforum.com.pk/304761-post8.html]CSS Forums - View Single Post - Guideline Thread for Geography[/url]




[B][U]SECOND THEORY[/U][/B]


[B]In 1909 the German [/B]location [B]economist Alfred Weber [/B]formulated a [B]theory of industrial location[/B] in his book entitled Über den Standort der Industrien (Theory of the Location of Industries, 1929).

Weber’s theory, [B]called the location triangle, [/B]sought the optimum location for the production of a good based on the fixed locations of the market and two raw material sources, which geographically form a triangle. He sought to determine the least-cost production location within the triangle by figuring the [B]total costs [/B]of transporting [B]raw material [/B]from both sites to the production site and product from the production site to the market. The weight of the raw materials and the final commodity are important determinants of the transport costs and the location of production.

Commodities that lose mass during production can be transported less expensively from the production site to the market than from the raw material site to the production site. The production site, therefore, will be located near the raw material sources. Where there is no great loss of mass during production, total transportation costs will be lower when located near the market.

Once a least-transport-cost location had been established within the triangle, Weber attempted to determine a cheap-labour alternate location. First he plotted the variation of transportation costs against the least-transport-cost location. Next he identified sites around the triangle that had lower labour costs than did the least-transport-cost location. If the transport costs were lower than the labour costs, then a cheap-labour alternative location was determined.


[B][U]THIRD THEORY[/U][/B]


Another major contribution to location theory was [B]Walter Christaller’s [/B]formulation of the [B]central place theory,[/B] which offered geometric explanations as to how settlements and places are located in relation to one another and why settlements function as hamlets, villages, towns, or cities.

[B][U]Fourth Model[/U][/B]

[B]William Alonso (Location and Land Use: Toward a General Theory of Land Rent, 1964) [/B]built upon the Thünen model to account for intra-urban variations in land use. He attempted to apply accessibility requirements to the city centre for various types of land use (housing, commercial, and industry).

According to his theory, each land use type has its own rent gradient or bid rent curve. The curve sets the maximum amount of rent any land use type will yield for a specific location. Households, commercial establishments, and industries compete for locations according to each individual bid rent curve and their requirements for access to the city centre. All households will attempt to occupy as much land as possible while staying within their accessibility requirements.

Since land is cheaper at the fringe of the city, households with less need for city centre accessibility will locate near the fringe; these will usually be wealthy households. Poor households require greater accessibility to the city centre and therefore will locate near the centre, competing with commercial and industrial establishments. This will tend to create a segregated land use system, because households will not pay commercial and industrial land prices for central locations.

The Thünen, Weber, Alonso, and Christaller models are not the sole contributors to location theory, but they are its foundation. These theories have been expanded upon and refined by geographers, economists, and regional scientists.

[B][U]Types of Agriculture or Classification Of Agraiculture[/U][/B]


Agriculture is one of the most widespread activities in the world, but its character is not uniform throughout. There are a number of ways to classify agriculture and some of the major criteria which can be adopted include the scale of farming, crop and livestock combinations, intensity of farming, means and ways of disposal of the farm produce and the level of farm mechanization etc. A number of scholars have attempted to identify various types of agriculture.

The following are the major types of agriculture in the world


[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]*Nomadic Herding[/COLOR][/U][/B]

This type is based upon the rearing of animals on natural pastures. This practice is followed by the people of the semi arid and arid regions. They keep moving with their animals in search of natural pastures and lead a nomadic life. The type of the animals reared differ from one region to the other. Northern Africa, parts of Arabia and parts of northern Eurasia are the typical regions of this type of farming. This is a subsistence type of activity.


[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]*Livestock Ranching[/COLOR][/U][/B]

Under this system of farming also the major emphasis is laid on rearing of animals but the farmers live a settled life. This type of farming has developed on a commercial basis in those areas of the world where large areas are available for animal grazing, such as the low rainfall areas of North America, South America and Australia. Animals are reared mainly for meat and wool and they are kept on large scale farms called the ranches

[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]*Shifting Cultivation [/COLOR][/U][/B]

This is the type of farming adopted generally in the rainy tropics. Under this system the land for cultivation is obtained by cleared off the forests with the help of slashing and burning technique and it is cultivated for a few years till the fertility declines or the land is overtaken by the weeds etc. Then the land is abandoned and a new plot is cleared for farming. This is a subsistence type of farming done manually without much use of animal power or other types of power. This is the subsistence type of activity adopted by the people living in the tropical forest regions of southeast Asia. Major emphasis is on the grain crops. This type of farming is now on a decline as due to its land spoiling nature it is being discouraged by the government agencies.

[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]*Rudimentary Sedentary Tillage[/COLOR][/U][/B]

This is also a subsistence type of activity and it differs from the foregoing type in terms of the fact that the same plot of land is cultivated continuously year after year. Fallowing of land is commonly adopted to maintain the soil fertility and it is also a farming type of the tropical regions. Besides the grain crops, some tree crops such rubber are also grown under this system.


[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]*Intensive Subsistence Farming with Rice Dominant [/COLOR][/U][/B]

This type of farming is practiced in the areas of tropical regions having a high density of population and receiving a large amount of precipitation. Rice is the dominant crop as it can employ and feed a large number of people per unit of area. Southeast Asian region is the major area of this type of farming. Use of manual and animal power is dominant and effort is made to enhance the productivity per unit of area with the use of manures etc.

[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]*Intensive Subsistence Farming Without Rice Dominant[/COLOR][/U][/B]

This is a slightly dry climatic variant of the foregoing type and as the amount of rainfall is not very high these regions grow grain crops other than rice, such as wheat and millets. Besides the comparatively less wet areas of Asia, northern Africa and the parts of Middle East this type of farming is commonly practiced in parts of southern Africa and Central America also.


[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]*Commercial Plantations[/COLOR][/U][/B]

Though practiced over a rather small area, this type of farming is quite important in terms of its commercial value. The major products of this type of farming are the tropical crops such as tea, coffee, rubber and oil palm etc. This type of farming has developed in parts of Asia, Africa and Latin America where the influence of the Europeans has been important during the colonial period. Most of the plantations were developed to provide the tropical crops to the European markets. This is a highly capital intensive farming and most of the crops are tree crops.


[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]*Mediterranean Agriculture [/COLOR][/U][/B]

The typical rugged relief of the Mediterranean region has resulted in typical livestock and crop combinations in this region. Wheat and vineyards and citrus fruits are the major crops and the small animals the major livestock reared in the region. Horticulture is a major activity of this region and most of the crops other than these plantations are grown in winter with the help of winter rains.


[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]*Commercial Grain Farming [/COLOR][/U][/B]

This type of farming is a response to farm mechanization and it is the major type of activity in the areas of low rainfall and low density of population where extensive farming is practiced. Crops are prone to the vagaries of weather and droughts and monoculture of wheat is the general practice. Prairies, steppes and the temperate grasslands of South America and Australia are the main areas of this type of farming.

[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]*Livestock and Grain Farming[/COLOR][/U][/B]

This type is commonly known as mixed farming and this practice has originated in the humid areas of the middle latitudes, except in Asia. Its development is closely related to the market facilities, and it is a typically European type of farming where an effort is made to get the best out of crop farming and animal rearing. Great Britain and New-Zealand are the examples of areas where it is the common practice.

[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]*Subsistence Crop and Stock Farming[/COLOR][/U][/B]

This type resembles the foregoing type in terms of the crops and type of livestock but differs. In that practically nothing is sold off the farm. This type of farming has been common in areas of middle latitudes with lower fertility of soils or the areas of rough terrain and has declined significantly after the collectivization of farming in Russia which has been one of the major regions where this has been practiced.

[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]*Dairy Farming [/COLOR][/U][/B]

This type also had its origin in Europe from where it spread to other areas. Close proximity to the market and a temperate climate are the two favorable factors which have been responsible for the development of this type of farming. Countries like Denmark and Sweden have witnessed the maximum development of this type of farming.


[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]*Specialized Horticulture[/COLOR][/U][/B]

This type of farming has also developed to take advantage of a large demand for the products of horticulture and the areas of large scale urbanisation and high density of population in Europe have been favorable for its development. This type of farming has best developed in the vineyard cultivation areas of France, northern Hungary and the Swiss Lakes regions.
Although Whittlesey's agricultural classification is quite elaborate, the regionalisation on the basis of this classification is not something permanent. Due to changing market demands and the developing agricultural technology, a number of changes have come in the agricultural pattern of the world since Whittlesey's study. Large demands for fruits and vegetables in the urban areas have resulted in modified landuse in many parts of the world and such factors impart a dynamic character to the agricultural activity.


regards sabahat

hi sabahat. thanx 4 providing such useful notes. i have prepared my geography paper 1 but pap 2 is haunting me bcs of its diverse areas? now at this time i cant drop geography nd i m afraid abt my pap 2 that how to prepare it, plz help me in this regard

[QUOTE=Misbah Khan;361314]hi sabahat. thanx 4 providing such useful notes. i have prepared my geography paper 1 but pap 2 is haunting me bcs of its diverse areas? now at this time i cant drop geography nd i m afraid abt my pap 2 that how to prepare it, plz help me in this regard[/QUOTE]


ur welcome misbah khan.dear now the trends have changed fpsc have converted the paper into current affair type paper,i think it a very good idea bcoz it will broaden your view about current geo.problems,rather than just rot learning from books.

so paper 2 seems easy to me.remember dear keep in touch with current affair programmes they usually discussed geo. problems as well like in 2011 agriculture and water issue were very important issues and also asked in exams. so don`t worry nothing will be out of syllabus.just keep listening t.v programmes,and don`t forget to visit css forum it will help you alot.

if you have any other query you are most welcome to ask.

regards sabahat

hay can anybody tell me that if we have to select those subjects which are we have not studied ever before and these are more than 3 than should we take them if we dont have other choice???? plz reply.

[QUOTE=teal blue;361685]hay can anybody tell me that if we have to select those subjects which are we have not studied ever before and these are more than 3 than should we take them if we dont have other choice???? plz reply.[/QUOTE]

yes teal blue you can but make sure before choosing subject that you are comfortable with them and if you can prepare them easily.then there is no problem, take my own example i choose 3 subjects which i have never read before in my whole life but i did bcoz they were very interesting.

don`t be afraid this is css brother you have to take this risk. best of luck for your selection.

regards sabahat

Thankssssssssss
 

@Syeda Sabahat:
Dear I don't know how to thank your efforts regarding this thread of Geo-2.
In simple words " May Allah bless you always".
Thankssssssssssssssssss as you have made my burden very light.

Hi sabahat. dear ur outlines made 4 each topic are very helpful. can u plss tell me that which chapters to study frm Human geog by De blijj, if it is convenient for u? and i want to complete my pap 2 in 12 days, is it engh time? i m starting frm today.

[QUOTE=Misbah Khan;362111]Hi sabahat. dear ur outlines made 4 each topic are very helpful. can u plss tell me that which chapters to study frm Human geog by De blijj, if it is convenient for u? and i want to complete my pap 2 in 12 days, is it engh time? i m starting frm today.[/QUOTE]


i think yes if you can bcoz human geo.is very easy and you can easily prepare it, 1 + point is this the population portion which you will prepare in human geo. syllabus same is there in economic geo. you don`t need to prepare it separatly there so it will save your time.

for economic geo. just go through latest figures of crops,population e.t.c

yes for pakistan you need to prepare it very carefully bcoz this is the main concern of examiners.

try to prepare 1st 2 paper jointly bcoz they have some common things and then pakistan geo seperatly. inshallah you will prepare it in 12-15 days.

best of luck.;)

regards sabahat

hello
 

[QUOTE=SYEDA SABAHAT;362239]i think yes if you can bcoz human geo.is very easy and you can easily prepare it, 1 + point is this the population portion which you will prepare in human geo. syllabus same is there in economic geo. you don`t need to prepare it separatly there so it will save your time.

for economic geo. just go through latest figures of crops,population e.t.c

yes for pakistan you need to prepare it very carefully bcoz this is the main concern of examiners.

try to prepare 1st 2 paper jointly bcoz they have some common things and then pakistan geo seperatly. inshallah you will prepare it in 12-15 days.

best of luck.;)
@ syeda sabahat
Kia app mujy guide krr sktee hain yeh css mn optional paper kun c hoty hian and lazmi paper kun c hoty hain,main blql fresh candidate hon and mjy zyda koi ilm nh hae,mn bh geography study krna chahta hn,ais ky liay mjy koi kitaben tajweez krn tu mehrbani ho ge apke ,,,,,
shukria
mn apky jawab ka intazar krn ga..

[QUOTE=najid ahmad;362243][QUOTE=SYEDA SABAHAT;362239]i think yes if you can bcoz human geo.is very easy and you can easily prepare it, 1 + point is this the population portion which you will prepare in human geo. syllabus same is there in economic geo. you don`t need to prepare it separatly there so it will save your time.

for economic geo. just go through latest figures of crops,population e.t.c

yes for pakistan you need to prepare it very carefully bcoz this is the main concern of examiners.

try to prepare 1st 2 paper jointly bcoz they have some common things and then pakistan geo seperatly. inshallah you will prepare it in 12-15 days.

best of luck.;)
@ syeda sabahat
Kia app mujy guide krr sktee hain yeh css mn optional paper kun c hoty hian and lazmi paper kun c hoty hain,main blql fresh candidate hon and mjy zyda koi ilm nh hae,mn bh geography study krna chahta hn,ais ky liay mjy koi kitaben tajweez krn tu mehrbani ho ge apke ,,,,,
shukria
mn apky jawab ka intazar krn ga..[/QUOTE]


[B]my pleasure dear.

in css we these compulsory subjects

1)english essay (100 marks)
2)english precise and composition paper (100 marks)
3)general knowledge papers

a)every day science ( 100 marks)
b)current affairs (100)
c)pakistan affairs(100)

4)islamiat paper ( 100 marks)

total 600 marks of compulsory subjects.

then you have to select optional subject of 600 marks, now the main point you cannot choose 2 (200) marks subject from a single group. like from histry section you have to choose only 1 histroy subject.

the other option is you can choose 1 subject of 200 marks and other of 100 marks.

for example my combination was

1)geography(200 marks)
2)sociology(100 marks)
3)journalism(100 marks)
4(islamic histroy (200 marks)

total 600 marks.


for books and guidence regarding geography plz view this

[url]http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css-optional-subjects/group-d/geography/52295-tips-guidence-geography.html[/url]


i hope you will now understand but if don`t than ask any question we are all here to help you.

regards sabahat[/B]

[B][U][CENTER][COLOR="Olive"]LATEST STATISTICAL DATA[/COLOR][/CENTER][/U][/B]


[B][U]AGRICULTURE[/U][/B]

[url]http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapter_11/02-Agriculture.pdf[/url]


[B][U]POPULATION[/U][/B]

[url]http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapter_11/12-Population.pdf[/url]


[B][U]ENERGY[/U][/B]

[url]http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapter_11/15-Energy.pdf[/url]


REGARDS SABAHAT :))

[QUOTE=SYEDA SABAHAT;362254][B][U][CENTER][COLOR="Olive"]LATEST STATISTICAL DATA[/COLOR][/CENTER][/U][/B]


[B][U]AGRICULTURE[/U][/B]

[url]http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapter_11/02-Agriculture.pdf[/url]


[B][U]POPULATION[/U][/B]

[url]http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapter_11/12-Population.pdf[/url]


[B][U]ENERGY[/U][/B]

[url]http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapter_11/15-Energy.pdf[/url]


REGARDS SABAHAT :))[/QUOTE]

1.Define resources?Give more workable classification of resources citing explicit examples?[/I][/I]-Can anyone lease tell me how to answer this Qs?
How would you classify the resouces?


2.Discuss Critically Types of Migration ?Is me kiyah Migrtion k nuqsanat bayan karney hain yah..for examples is se kiyah -ve Effects partey hain yah phir jo is kee types hai us se k nuqsanat Individually discuss karney hain .. reply ..

3.How a Culture of an aread affected by Landscape .. Is ka mujhey kuch net mil raha ..

4.Classify Settlement on the basis of Form and Size..

is kee forms kon see hain ??Aur size me kis tarha se classify karein ge .. Make some outline mein samjh jaoongee...

sayeeda answers my Questions please.. aap mere Qs dekhtee hee nahn.. Itne thread pe meney apne Qs posts kiyeh hain ...

But aap hain k koi reply hee nahin ..

SayeedaI have read in someones post that You are teacher of Geography ,if ITS TRUE then please help me ..

Atleast make an oitline yar the way to solve these Qs ...

[QUOTE=amubin;362520]1.Define resources?Give more workable classification of resources citing explicit examples?[/I][/I]-Can anyone lease tell me how to answer this Qs?
How would you classify the resouces?


2.Discuss Critically Types of Migration ?Is me kiyah Migrtion k nuqsanat bayan karney hain yah..for examples is se kiyah -ve Effects partey hain yah phir jo is kee types hai us se k nuqsanat Individually discuss karney hain .. reply ..

3.How a Culture of an aread affected by Landscape .. Is ka mujhey kuch net mil raha ..

4.Classify Settlement on the basis of Form and Size..

is kee forms kon see hain ??Aur size me kis tarha se classify karein ge .. Make some outline mein samjh jaoongee...

sayeeda answers my Questions please.. aap mere Qs dekhtee hee nahn.. Itne thread pe meney apne Qs posts kiyeh hain ...

But aap hain k koi reply hee nahin ..

SayeedaI have read in someones post that You are teacher of Geography ,if ITS TRUE then please help me ..

Atleast make an oitline yar the way to solve these Qs ...[/QUOTE]

no dear its not like this i am very busy in preparing my presentations. and secondly daer you posted your questions seperately in every thread so its very difficult for me to find out every thread and ans. it.

now thanks god you have posted your question in a single thread,i will try my level best to answer your questions.

[B][U]Q:2) OUTLINE[/U][/B]

[B][U]Migration[/U][/B]

on the basis of motivation
1)economic migration
2)social

on the basis of distance
1)long distance
2)short distance

on the basis of time
1)short term
2)long term

[B][U]Types[/U][/B]

a)national/internal
b)international/external

a)National

*rural-urban
*rural-rural
*urban-urban
*urban-rural

b)international

its further by
1)forced migration
2)political instability
3)voluntary for economic reason

when you will define these types ,you will automatically define their advantages and dis advantages.

[B][U]Q:4) SETTLEMENTS[/U][/B]

Broadly divided in to 2 types

[B]1)Dispersed settelments(only in rural areas)
2)nucleated settelments(both rural and urban type)[/B]

[U][B]nucleated settelments[/B][/U]
a)rural settelments

1)loose knit fragmented villages
2)nucleated villages
3)linear villages
4)open space villages
5)double villages.

[B]Q:1)Contents
• 1 Economic versus biological resources
• 2 Computer resources
• 3 Land or natural resources
• 4 Labor or human resources
• 5 Capital or infrastructure
• 6 Tangible versus intangible resources

now you have to define the question from geographical point of view so you will conecntrate on power,energy,human and land resources.then give example of each resource from your own country like hydropower(mangla dam e.t.c)[/B]

amubin 3rd question is very easy i will not do it try to do it yourself,amke an outline i will help you further about it. at least try....

regards sabahat:king

sayeda sa
 

[QUOTE=SYEDA SABAHAT;362606]no dear its not like this i am very busy in preparing my presentations. and secondly daer you posted your questions seperately in every thread so its very difficult for me to find out every thread and ans. it.

now thanks god you have posted your question in a single thread,i will try my level best to answer your questions.

[B][U]Q:2) OUTLINE[/U][/B]

[B][U]Migration[/U][/B]

on the basis of motivation
1)economic migration
2)social

on the basis of distance
1)long distance
2)short distance

on the basis of time
1)short term
2)long term

[B][U]Types[/U][/B]

a)national/internal
b)international/external

a)National

*rural-urban
*rural-rural
*urban-urban
*urban-rural

b)international

its further by
1)forced migration
2)political instability
3)voluntary for economic reason

when you will define these types ,you will automatically define their advantages and dis advantages.

[B][U]Q:4) SETTLEMENTS[/U][/B]

Broadly divided in to 2 types

[B]1)Dispersed settelments(only in rural areas)
2)nucleated settelments(both rural and urban type)[/B]

[U][B]nucleated settelments[/B][/U]
a)rural settelments

1)loose knit fragmented villages
2)nucleated villages
3)linear villages
4)open space villages
5)double villages.

[B]Q:1)Contents
• 1 Economic versus biological resources
• 2 Computer resources
• 3 Land or natural resources
• 4 Labor or human resources
• 5 Capital or infrastructure
• 6 Tangible versus intangible resources

now you have to define the question from geographical point of view so you will conecntrate on power,energy,human and land resources.then give example of each resource from your own country like hydropower(mangla dam e.t.c)[/B]

amubin 3rd question is very easy i will not do it try to do it yourself,amke an outline i will help you further about it. at least try....

regards sabahat:king[/QUOTE]

Sayeda I have understood the Qs is me poocha gaya hai k culture vary karta hai place to place such as People who are living in Mountains have different types of Culture,Whereas,people who are living in Desearts they have different types of culture.

lekin mujhey problem is me horahee hai k mujhey examples nain mill rahee hai k kis tarha se define karoon..Meney shroo me try kiyah tha lekin I was nt writing well.Phr meney socha k mein kisee se pooch k solve karongee ..


Ek aur cheez pochne thee is it necessary to write current facts and figures?

sayeeda Sahabat
 

[B]Sayeeda I have few more Qs .I hope you dunt mind if I ask it.

[/B]

1.How far man has changed the environment in his favour?
2.Which are the western Highlands of Pakistan?And what are the Irrigation methods practiced in those areas..

Please,answer it..

Thankyou..

sayeeda ek cheez samjh mein nahin ayee js me me aksar confuse horahee thee ..Critically,Define Migration me mainly criticize karne hota hai ?write yah us k positive aspects+Negative aspects define karney hotey hain ..
:sad:

Sorry Moderators thodee thodee der bad mere zahan me sawal aa rahey hain .. ager mujhey pata hota k ek post me kis tarha se compile kartey hain to mein kar dete .. Extremly sorry ..

Sayeeda ,cyclical Migration,Step Migration .. Yeh bhi to types hain Migration kee.. yeh nahin likhogee aap ..

Yah Phir yeh different ways of Migrations hain ..Sorry I am bit confused thats the reason on account of I had asked this Qs..

Extremly Sorry

Salam. Explain process of urbanization in pakistan. Regards

[QUOTE=farhan1111;364026]Salam. Explain process of urbanization in pakistan. Regards[/QUOTE]


here is the answer in bullet points

[B][U]URBANIZATION[/U][/B]

*[B]DEFINITION[/B]

1)the tendency to settle in the cities or urban areas.

2)migration of rural population to the cities.

3)increase in the number of urban population.

[B][U]*TRENDS OF URBANIZATION IN PAKISTAN[/U][/B]

[B]18% IN 1947
28.3% IN 1981
32.5% IN 1998
38-40% CURRENT.[/B]

[B][U]MAJOR URBAN CENTERS OF PAKISTAN[/U][/B]

[B]23 cities having a population of 0.2 million and above.

1)karachi 9.26 m
2)lahore 5.06m
3)faisalabad 1.97m

hydrabad,multan,r.w.p,gujranwala(over 1 million)[/B]
[B][U]
CAUSES OF URBANIZATION[/U][/B]

*[B]REFUGEES
*RURAL URBAN MIGRATION
*INDUSTRILIZATION IN CITIES
*BETTER FACILITIES OF LIVING
*NEGLIGENCE IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT
*DECREASE IN LABOUR DEAMAND IN AGRICULTURE
*MISREIES OF FEUDALISM
*ROLE OF MADIA
*NUCLEUS FAMILY[/B]

[B][U]EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION[/U][/B]

[B]*OVER POPULATION
*INCREASE IN CRIME AND VIOLENCE
*SHORATGE OF RESOURCE
*UNEMPLOYMENT
*HOUSING AND SETTLEMENT PROBLEM
*ENVIORMENTAL POLLUTION
*POOR HYGIENE AND SANITATION[/B]


[B][U]SOLUTIONS[/U][/B]

[B]*DEVELOPMENT IN AGRICULURE
*INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT IN RURAL AREAS
*RECYCLING PLANTS IN RURAL AREAS
*REFORME OF COTTAGE INDUSRIES
E.T.C[/B]

REGARDS SABAHAT:king

[B][U][CENTER][COLOR="Olive"]INDUSTRIES[/COLOR][/CENTER][/U][/B]

[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]INDUSTRIAL REGIONS[/COLOR][/U][/B]


[B][[COLOR="Navy"]U]The Forces of Technology[/COLOR][/U][/B]

[B]1. The role of machines and technology release people from labor drudgery, but they have also displaced millions of workers. Has the release from drudgery resulted in the collapse of work?
2. What are the forces of technology?
o Traditional viewpoint is that technology develops from its own imperative to increase labor productivity.
o An alternative view is that the technology develops according to social relations based on its potential to do social good (although this potential can be misused),
[B][U]
[COLOR="Navy"]The Changing Geography of Industry and Employment[/[/COLOR]U][/B]

1. Industrial restructuring can improve human welfare, but it may result in social inefficiency.
2. Industrial restructuring and movement of industrial jobs to LDCs impacts on developed countries, especially Britain as well as the U.S.
3. In LDCs, the new manufacturing regions attract on selected industries or parts of industries, making them vulnerable to outside control by multinational firms.
4. New industries rarely meet consumption needs of poor people, but can pollute environments, affect local cultures, and exploit labor—especially females.
5. The driving force behind multination corporations is the need to survive in a highly competitive world.
[B][U]
[COLOR="Navy"]Forces of Production and Social Relations[/COLOR][/U][/B]

1. Forces of production include labor, natural resources, and capital.
2. Conflict emerges between owners of means of production and workers employed to operate these means.
3. Private ownership has two dimensions: (a) competition among owners of means and (b) cooperation and antagonistic relations between owners (capital) and workers (labor).
4. Relations among owners. Capitalism leads to production decisions under the pressures of competition. Competition promotes success but is also a source of tension.
5. Relations between capital and labor. Competition forces investment in technology to increase productivity and wages, but it also leads to lower employment or more periphery employment that lowers labor’s bargaining power.
6. Competition and survival in space. The world has become a “global factor” with a new international division of labor based on high-skilled jobs using sophisticated technology in developed countries and low-skill jobs in developing countries.

[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]Where Industry is Located[/[/COLOR]U][/B]

1. [COLOR="DarkRed"]North America. [/COLOR] Location still centered in Northeastern U.S. and Southeastern Canada (called the North American manufacturing or “rust” belt.)
a. First settled in the 17th and 18th century it is lined by a transportation system that includes the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, connected to the East Coast and the Atlantic Ocean by the Mohawk and Hudson Rivers.
b. The New England district is noted for highly skilled labor and ingenuity and includes nearby universities in Boston.
c. Figure 9.3 shows other manufacturing regions in the U.S.
d. Computer manufacturing is shown in Figure 9.4, with the greatest concentration in California.

2. [COLOR="DarkRed"]Europe. [/COLOR] Location of manufacturing is in a north-south linear pattern from Scotland through England, through the mouth of the Rhine River Valley, through Germany and France, to northern Italy.
a. The Industrial Revolution started in the United Kingdom in 1750, based on iron and steel production and textile and woolen manufacture.
b. Germany and Japan, with U.S. assistance rebuilt after WWII gaining industrial success against Great Britain.
c. The Rhine River is the main waterway of European commerce, emptying into the North Sea at the Dutch city of Rotterdam—the world’s largest port.
d. Northern Italy has attracted manufacturing due to lower wages and cheap hydroelectricity from the Alps.

3. [COLOR="DarkRed"]Russia and the Ukraine.[/COLOR] Five major industrial regions exist within the former Soviet Union.
a. Moscow, near the population center of Russia takes advantage of a large, skilled labor pool and a large market, primarily for textiles, but also for iron and steel, transportation equipment, chemicals, and motor vehicles.
b. Eastern Ukraine to the southwest of Moscow benefits from rich coal deposits, attracting iron and steel producers.
c. The linear Volga Region to the east of Moscow is the principal location of substantial oil and gas deposits. It is also linked to the Black Sea from the Volga River.
d. Just east of Volga in the Urals Region where the Urals Mountains have the largest deposits of industrial materials in the former Soviet Union.
e. The Kuznetsk Basin is the chief industrial region to the east of the Urals.



[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]Globalization of World Manufacturing[/COLOR][/U][/B]

1. The [COLOR="DarkRed"]new international division of labor [/COLOR]asserted itself as the rate of worldwide economic growth declined following the 25 year post World War II boom.
2. The decline began with the [COLOR="DarkRed"]“Great Recession” in 1974-75 [/COLOR]after the first oil shock in 1973.
3. The manufacturing output of advanced countries showed slowed dramatically in the 1970s and actually fell in Great Britain.
4. The highest rate of manufacturing decline in the U.S. was in the Midwest or “Rust Belt” but manufacturing actually increased in the late 1970s and 1980s in low conflict, low wage states, including “Sun Belt” states.
5. The most rapid growth in manufacturing output occurred in East and South Asia, including Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Singapore.
6. Manufacturing growth has been slower in Africa and South Asia.
7. Between 1974 and 1995 the advanced industrial countries lost 20 million manufacturing jobs while newly industrialized countries added 16 million jobs.
8. Is this shift in share good or bad? Average wage income has fallen globally, but consumers have benefited from competition and lower prices. The flow of global capital by multinational corporations is not sensitive to the full social cost of their actions, but are forced (through competition) to primarily consider private costs of production.
9. Textile manufacturers. Clothing manufacturing has shifted from developed to developing market countries. (Table 9.3)
10. Automobiles. Automobile component manufacturing is focused on Japan, the U.S., and Western Europe and is dominated by giant transnational firms. Assembly operations are beginning to occur in developing countries (Mexico, China)
11. Microelectronics. The transistor was built in the U.S. by Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1948. By 1960 the integrated circuit was produced and by the early 1970s the microprocessor was born. By 1990 Japan surpassed the U.S. in the world production of semiconductors.

[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]The Relocation of American Manufacturing Industry[/COLOR][/U][/B]

1. Deindustrialization in the U.S. during the 1970s and 1980s occurred as American Companies reacted to prolonged economic crisis and declining profit rates.
2. American firms downsized and switched capital in space.
3. Firms relocated from the American Manufacturing Belt and moved out of central cities to the suburbs, aided by intercity trucks and the interstate highway system.
4. California attracted a cluster of high-tech industries and related services, centered around electronics and the declining defense industry.
5. A new round of industrial expansion took place during the latter 1990s with a disciplined pool of highly skilled that emphasizes high value added products—electronic equipment, electrical machinery, firearms, tools, and recently biomedical products.
6. Lower transportation costs have shifted the location of automobile assembly plants, resulting in few firms. Just-in-time inventory management is encouraging component plants to locate close to assembly plants.
7. Foreign direct investment (Toyota plant in San Antonio) is also increasing.

[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]The Japanese Model for Industrialization[/COLOR][/U][/B]

1. Recently tarnished by recession its economic achievement after WWII has been remarkable even though it is practically devoid of significant raw materials for major industry and, hence, relies on imports.
2. Japan historically had abundant human resources that are relatively homogeneous and committed to a high degree of national consensus.
3. Japan’s Ministry of International Trade (MITI) directed savings and investment among industries under what has been called Japan Incorporated.
4. Recently, more Japanese young people are unwilling to sacrifice their individuality and are less committed to the work ethnic of their predecessors.
5. The drive for economic growth at the expense of social welfare, the environment, and international relations has led to problems.
a. International relations suffer from tensions with trading partners.
b. The location of industries “offshore” in newly industrialized countries has fostered competition in South Korea, etc.
c. The large Japanese companies “exploit” small, low wage domestic firms in order to keep labor costs low.
d. Savers have been exploited through banks that offered low interest rates and cooperated with the MITI to allocate capital among chosen large industrial firms.
e. Environment pollution has been ignored.
f. Regional imbalance has occurred between the core region and the rest of the country.
g. Urban concentrations have added to congestion, noise, lack of parking, auto accidents, air pollution, and land madness.

[B][U[COLOR="Navy"]]Industrialization in the Developing World[/COLOR][/U][/B]

1. [B][U]Deindustrialization[/U][/B] in the West Hemisphere in the 1970s and 1980s was not matched by industrialization of all countries in the developing world. Rather in 1990, a relatively few newly industrialized countries dominated world exports of industrial commodities. (Four Southeast Asian countries—Hong Kong, South Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan accounted for one-third of industrial commodity exports.)
a. NICs changed their industrial strategy from one based on import substitution to one based on exports.
b. Other countries, like Mexico and Argentina, primarily exported traditional manufactured goods favored by raw material conditions.
c. Countries with few natural resources (East Asian countries) tailored their industrial bases to world economic needs.
2. [B][U]Import-substitution failed[/U][/B] because entrepreneurs did not have adequate capital nor technology to begin domestic industrialization—foreign multinational came to the rescue.
3. [B][U]Export-led industrialization[/U][/B] was able to sustain growth through its linkage to external markets—operating especially in export-processing zones.
4. [B][U]Multinationals established operating systems [/U][/B]between locally owned and foreign owned companies through out-sourcing contracts. Although projects may be called joint ventures involving local capital, “independent” development soon became dependent industrialization under the control of foreign capital.
5. [B][U]The Key Point: [/U][/B] Third World exports to developed countries are part of a unified production process controlled by firms in the advanced industrial countries.
6. [B][U]Export-led industrialization [/U][/B]moves work to workers instead of workers to work. Most of the work in export-processing zones is in electronics and electrical assembly or in textiles. Young, unmarried women are the prominent workforce.
7. [B][U]Is this exploitation? [/U][/B] Women are paid less than men for the same job. The traditional culture of the country has changed, especially among young women.
8. [B][U]Can export-oriented industrialization lead to the creation of an indigenous, self-expanding economy?[/U][/B] Essential elements:
a. Commitment to education
b. A high level of national savings (restrict flow of capital abroad, low tax rates on savings, limit importation of luxury goods.)
c. A strong political framework (avoid excess public debt)
d. Focus on higher valued added exports

9. [B][U]IMF emphasis on [/U][/B]“structural adjustment” policies:
a. Currency devaluation (floating exchange rates)
b. Net export promotion
c. Privatizing of state industries
d. Government budget cuts

10. [B][U]Two other factors [/U][/B]favoring development are a country’s relative geographic advantage and reduction in strains generated by past population growth explosion.
11. A small, but growing number of countries are moving from the [B][U]“have-not” to the “have” status[/U][/B], while many more remain behind.
[B][U]
[COLOR="Navy"]World Industrial Problems[/COLOR][/U][/B]

1. [COLOR="DarkRed"]Decreasing demand [/COLOR]for industrial products since mid-1990s as world has approached saturation for many consumer goods, changing technology has lowered the demand for some products, and there is greater emphasis on quality of products that last longer.
2. [COLOR="DarkRed"]Excess world capacity [/COLOR]developed as many countries want to develop their own capacity (steel industry, for example) as a hedge against world inflation and dependence on foreign imports.
3. [COLOR="DarkRed"]Developed countries are challenged [/COLOR]to find new markets for their industrial output—the solution in competition is to increase productivity.
a. [COLOR="DarkRed"]Competition[/COLOR] is increasingly from market blocs of countries, such as the EU, that allow companies to take advantage of agglomeration economies or natural resources.
b. Multinational companies will continue to operate in countries other their the country of origin to overcome import restrictions as well as lower costs of production.
c. Rich city-poor city regions will develop within countries—Northern Italy per capita income is three times that in Southern Italy.
4. Developing countries have a special set of problems including [COLOR="DarkRed"]accessibility to distant world markets[/COLOR], lack of real investment capital, lack of trained labor capable of producing a manufacturing class, and lack of surrounding infrastructure.
5. Recent worldwide attention has developed from [COLOR="DarkRed"]“sweatshops” [/COLOR]in developing countries affecting human rights of workers and the Asia’s [COLOR="DarkRed"]“financial meltdown” [/COLOR]based on over investment and corruption that spread to other countries.



[/B]

[B][U]INDUSTRIAL LOCATIONAL FACTORS[/U][/B]

[B][U]PHYSICAL FACTORS[/U][/B]

[B][U]Raw materials [/U][/B]

The factory needs to be close to these if they are heavy and bulky to transport.

[B][U]Energy supply [/U][/B]

This is needed to work the machines in a factory. Early industries were near to coalfields. Today, electricity allows more freedom.

[B][U]Natural routes[/U][/B]
River valleys and flat areas were essential in the days before railways and motorways made the movement of materials easier.

[B][U]Site and land [/U][/B]Most industries require large accessible areas of cheap, flat land on which to build their factories.


[B][U]HUMAN AND ECONOMIC FACTORS[/U][/B]

[B][U]Labour[/U][/B]

A large cheap labour force is required for labour-intensive manufacturing industries. High-tech industries have to locate where suitable skilled workers are available.

[B][U]Market [/U][/B]

An accessible place to sell the products is essential for many industries:
• those that produce bulky, heavy goods that are expensive to transport
• those that produce perishable or fragile goods
• those that provide services to people
The market is not so important for other industries such as high-tech whose products are light in weight and cheap to transport. Such industries are said to be 'footloose'.

[B][U]Capital [/U][/B]This is the money that is invested to start the business. The amount of capital will determine the size and location of the factory.
[B][U]Government policies [/U][/B]Industrial development is encourages in some areas and restricted in others. Industries that locate in depressed ('Development') areas may receive financial incentives from the government and assistance from the EU in the form of low rent and rates.

[B][U]Transport[/U][/B]
A good transport network helps reduce costs and make the movement of materials easier.

[B][U]Cost of land [/U][/B]Greenfield sites in rural areas are usually cheaper than brownfield sites in the city.

REGARDS SABAHAT

Hi Sabahat. i need ur help regarding economic geography. plss upload the notes of forests and fisheries bcs books r containing the figures of 1980's or 1996. also they r not covering all aspects. e.g economic factors for distribution of fisheries around the world. i shall b very thankful 4 ur help

[QUOTE=SYEDA SABAHAT;365579][B][U][CENTER][COLOR="Olive"]INDUSTRIES[/COLOR][/CENTER][/U][/B]

[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]INDUSTRIAL REGIONS[/COLOR][/U][/B]



[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]Where Industry is Located[/[/COLOR]U][/B]

1. [COLOR="DarkRed"]North America. [/COLOR] Location still centered in Northeastern U.S. and Southeastern Canada (called the North American manufacturing or “rust” belt.)
a. First settled in the 17th and 18th century it is lined by a transportation system that includes the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, connected to the East Coast and the Atlantic Ocean by the Mohawk and Hudson Rivers.
b. The New England district is noted for highly skilled labor and ingenuity and includes nearby universities in Boston.
c. Figure 9.3 shows other manufacturing regions in the U.S.
d. Computer manufacturing is shown in Figure 9.4, with the greatest concentration in California.

2. [COLOR="DarkRed"]Europe. [/COLOR] Location of manufacturing is in a north-south linear pattern from Scotland through England, through the mouth of the Rhine River Valley, through Germany and France, to northern Italy.
a. The Industrial Revolution started in the United Kingdom in 1750, based on iron and steel production and textile and woolen manufacture.
b. Germany and Japan, with U.S. assistance rebuilt after WWII gaining industrial success against Great Britain.
c. The Rhine River is the main waterway of European commerce, emptying into the North Sea at the Dutch city of Rotterdam—the world’s largest port.
d. Northern Italy has attracted manufacturing due to lower wages and cheap hydroelectricity from the Alps.

3. [COLOR="DarkRed"]Russia and the Ukraine.[/COLOR] Five major industrial regions exist within the former Soviet Union.
a. Moscow, near the population center of Russia takes advantage of a large, skilled labor pool and a large market, primarily for textiles, but also for iron and steel, transportation equipment, chemicals, and motor vehicles.
b. Eastern Ukraine to the southwest of Moscow benefits from rich coal deposits, attracting iron and steel producers.
c. The linear Volga Region to the east of Moscow is the principal location of substantial oil and gas deposits. It is also linked to the Black Sea from the Volga River.
d. Just east of Volga in the Urals Region where the Urals Mountains have the largest deposits of industrial materials in the former Soviet Union.
e. The Kuznetsk Basin is the chief industrial region to the east of the Urals.



[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]Globalization of World Manufacturing[/COLOR][/U][/B]

1. The [COLOR="DarkRed"]new international division of labor [/COLOR]asserted itself as the rate of worldwide economic growth declined following the 25 year post World War II boom.
2. The decline began with the [COLOR="DarkRed"]“Great Recession” in 1974-75 [/COLOR]after the first oil shock in 1973.
3. The manufacturing output of advanced countries showed slowed dramatically in the 1970s and actually fell in Great Britain.
4. The highest rate of manufacturing decline in the U.S. was in the Midwest or “Rust Belt” but manufacturing actually increased in the late 1970s and 1980s in low conflict, low wage states, including “Sun Belt” states.
5. The most rapid growth in manufacturing output occurred in East and South Asia, including Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Singapore.
6. Manufacturing growth has been slower in Africa and South Asia.
7. Between 1974 and 1995 the advanced industrial countries lost 20 million manufacturing jobs while newly industrialized countries added 16 million jobs.
8. Is this shift in share good or bad? Average wage income has fallen globally, but consumers have benefited from competition and lower prices. The flow of global capital by multinational corporations is not sensitive to the full social cost of their actions, but are forced (through competition) to primarily consider private costs of production.
9. Textile manufacturers. Clothing manufacturing has shifted from developed to developing market countries. (Table 9.3)
10. Automobiles. Automobile component manufacturing is focused on Japan, the U.S., and Western Europe and is dominated by giant transnational firms. Assembly operations are beginning to occur in developing countries (Mexico, China)
11. Microelectronics. The transistor was built in the U.S. by Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1948. By 1960 the integrated circuit was produced and by the early 1970s the microprocessor was born. By 1990 Japan surpassed the U.S. in the world production of semiconductors.

[B][U][COLOR="Navy"]The Relocation of American Manufacturing Industry[/COLOR][/U][/B]

1. Deindustrialization in the U.S. during the 1970s and 1980s occurred as American Companies reacted to prolonged economic crisis and declining profit rates.
2. American firms downsized and switched capital in space.
3. Firms relocated from the American Manufacturing Belt and moved out of central cities to the suburbs, aided by intercity trucks and the interstate highway system.
4. California attracted a cluster of high-tech industries and related services, centered around electronics and the declining defense industry.
5. A new round of industrial expansion took place during the latter 1990s with a disciplined pool of highly skilled that emphasizes high value added products—electronic equipment, electrical machinery, firearms, tools, and recently biomedical products.
6. Lower transportation costs have shifted the location of automobile assembly plants, resulting in few firms. Just-in-time inventory management is encouraging component plants to locate close to assembly plants.
7. Foreign direct investment (Toyota plant in San Antonio) is also increasing.


[B][U[COLOR="Navy"]]Industrialization in the Developing World[/COLOR][/U][/B]

1. [B][U]Deindustrialization[/U][/B] in the West Hemisphere in the 1970s and 1980s was not matched by industrialization of all countries in the developing world. Rather in 1990, a relatively few newly industrialized countries dominated world exports of industrial commodities. (Four Southeast Asian countries—Hong Kong, South Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan accounted for one-third of industrial commodity exports.)
a. NICs changed their industrial strategy from one based on import substitution to one based on exports.
b. Other countries, like Mexico and Argentina, primarily exported traditional manufactured goods favored by raw material conditions.
c. Countries with few natural resources (East Asian countries) tailored their industrial bases to world economic needs.
2. [B][U]Import-substitution failed[/U][/B] because entrepreneurs did not have adequate capital nor technology to begin domestic industrialization—foreign multinational came to the rescue.
3. [B][U]Export-led industrialization[/U][/B] was able to sustain growth through its linkage to external markets—operating especially in export-processing zones.
4. [B][U]Multinationals established operating systems [/U][/B]between locally owned and foreign owned companies through out-sourcing contracts. Although projects may be called joint ventures involving local capital, “independent” development soon became dependent industrialization under the control of foreign capital.
5. [B][U]The Key Point: [/U][/B] Third World exports to developed countries are part of a unified production process controlled by firms in the advanced industrial countries.
6. [B][U]Export-led industrialization [/U][/B]moves work to workers instead of workers to work. Most of the work in export-processing zones is in electronics and electrical assembly or in textiles. Young, unmarried women are the prominent workforce.
7. [B][U]Is this exploitation? [/U][/B] Women are paid less than men for the same job. The traditional culture of the country has changed, especially among young women.
8. [B][U]Can export-oriented industrialization lead to the creation of an indigenous, self-expanding economy?[/U][/B] Essential elements:
a. Commitment to education
b. A high level of national savings (restrict flow of capital abroad, low tax rates on savings, limit importation of luxury goods.)
c. A strong political framework (avoid excess public debt)
d. Focus on higher valued added exports

9. [B][U]IMF emphasis on [/U][/B]“structural adjustment” policies:
a. Currency devaluation (floating exchange rates)
b. Net export promotion
c. Privatizing of state industries
d. Government budget cuts

10. [B][U]Two other factors [/U][/B]favoring development are a country’s relative geographic advantage and reduction in strains generated by past population growth explosion.
11. A small, but growing number of countries are moving from the [B][U]“have-not” to the “have” status[/U][/B], while many more remain behind.
[B][U]
[COLOR="Navy"]World Industrial Problems[/COLOR][/U][/B]

1. [COLOR="DarkRed"]Decreasing demand [/COLOR]for industrial products since mid-1990s as world has approached saturation for many consumer goods, changing technology has lowered the demand for some products, and there is greater emphasis on quality of products that last longer.
2. [COLOR="DarkRed"]Excess world capacity [/COLOR]developed as many countries want to develop their own capacity (steel industry, for example) as a hedge against world inflation and dependence on foreign imports.
3. [COLOR="DarkRed"]Developed countries are challenged [/COLOR]to find new markets for their industrial output—the solution in competition is to increase productivity.
a. [COLOR="DarkRed"]Competition[/COLOR] is increasingly from market blocs of countries, such as the EU, that allow companies to take advantage of agglomeration economies or natural resources.
b. Multinational companies will continue to operate in countries other their the country of origin to overcome import restrictions as well as lower costs of production.
c. Rich city-poor city regions will develop within countries—Northern Italy per capita income is three times that in Southern Italy.
4. Developing countries have a special set of problems including [COLOR="DarkRed"]accessibility to distant world markets[/COLOR], lack of real investment capital, lack of trained labor capable of producing a manufacturing class, and lack of surrounding infrastructure.
5. Recent worldwide attention has developed from [COLOR="DarkRed"]“sweatshops” [/COLOR]in developing countries affecting human rights of workers and the Asia’s [COLOR="DarkRed"]“financial meltdown” [/COLOR]based on over investment and corruption that spread to other countries.



[/B][/QUOTE]


i have edited the answer for your convinience guys,i thought previous answer was a bit long and tough.so it would be better and to the point answer.

here is another notes of industries,infact detailed notes you just have to take data and maps from these notes. if you want to study it all then do it its really informative,i hope you all like it.


[url]http://mysite.cherokee.k12.ga.us/personal/matt_bartula/site/Subject%202%20Notes/1/Industrial%20Activity%20and%20Geographic%20Location.ppt[/url]

[QUOTE=Misbah Khan;366675]Hi Sabahat. i need ur help regarding economic geography. plss upload the notes of forests and fisheries bcs books r containing the figures of 1980's or 1996. also they r not covering all aspects. e.g economic factors for distribution of fisheries around the world. i shall b very thankful 4 ur help[/QUOTE]

ur most welcome,misbah i hate fishreies topic :blink: i never prepared it,but i will try to upload forests for you.

takecare [I]sabahat[/I]

thank u so much sabahat. pls tell me an outline of the tpc settlements nd also of the topic Less developed and more developed countries

[B][CENTER][COLOR="Olive"]DISTRIBUTION OF NATURAL VEGETATION[/COLOR][/CENTER][/B]


[url=http://www.travel-university.org/general/geography/vegetation/distribution.html]Distribution of Natural Vegetation[/url]


[B][CENTER]FACTORS[/CENTER][/B]


[B][CENTER]TEMPERATURE FACTOR[/CENTER][/B]

[url=http://www.travel-university.org/general/geography/vegetation/temperature.html]Temperature factor[/url]


[B][CENTER]EDAPHIC FACTOR[/CENTER][/B]

[url=http://www.travel-university.org/general/geography/vegetation/edaphic.html]Edaphic factors[/url]


[B][CENTER]GEOMORPHIC FACTOR[/CENTER][/B]

[url=http://www.travel-university.org/general/geography/vegetation/geomorphic.html]Geomorphic factors[/url]



[B][CENTER]EVERGREEN HARDWOOD FOREST[/CENTER][/B]


[url=http://www.travel-university.org/general/geography/vegetation/hardwood.html]Evergreen-hardwood forest[/url]




[B][CENTER]MONSOON FOREST[/CENTER][/B]


[url=http://www.travel-university.org/general/geography/vegetation/monsoon.html]Monsoon forest[/url]



[B][CENTER]TEMPERATE RAINFOREST[/CENTER][/B]


[url=http://www.travel-university.org/general/geography/vegetation/temperate.html]Temperate rainforest[/url]



[B][CENTER]TROPICAL SCRUB[/CENTER][/B]


[url]http://www.travel-university.org/general/geography/vegetation/thornbush.html[/url]


[B][CENTER]TROPICAL SAVANNA[/CENTER][/B]

[url=http://www.travel-university.org/general/geography/vegetation/tropical.html]Tropical savanna[/url]


misbah i am trying to search latest data about forest on FAO official site but its not there. apbhi search karo or baqi sabse bhi request ha k wo bhi search karen agar 2010 ka data mil jata ha to yahan paste ker dain.

regards sabahat