The universalism of Islam

By Dr Riffat Hassan
Friday, 17 Jul, 2009

THE cardinal principle of Islam is belief in the absolute oneness of God, or tauhid. In the opening chapter of the Quran, God is described as Rabb al-‘alamin. As pointed out by Dr Fathi Osman, in the Quran, God is not related to any particular place or people but to all creation.

Whilst the Hebrew Bible or the Old Testament refers to God as the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, the Quran does not refer to God as the God of a particular prophet. God is the one and only creator of everything that exists and from God’s unity comes the unity of creation. The Quran points out that God not only creates and sustains all creatures but also gives moral guidance to humanity which has been made “in the best of moulds” (Surah 95:4).

The Quran affirms that God “cares for all creatures” (Surah 2:268), and testifies that the message it contains is universal as may be seen from the following verses: “Hallowed is He who from on high, step by step, has bestowed upon His servant the standard by which to discern the true from the false, so that to all the world it may be a warning” (Surah 25:1).

“[The Quran] is but a reminder and a divine discourse, clear in itself and clearly showing the truth, to the end that it may warn everyone who is alive (of heart)” (Surah 36:69-70). “This (divine writ) behold, is no less than a reminder to all the worlds” (Surah 38:87). “This (message) is no less than a reminder to all humankind — to every one of you who wills to walk a straight way (Surah 81: 27-28).

The Quran also affirms the universal mission of the Prophet of Islam (PBUH) as, for instance, in Surah 34:28, it states: “Now (as for you, Mohammad) We have not sent you otherwise than to mankind at large, to be a herald of glad tidings and a warner.”

Islam’s non-exclusive spirit is embodied in many Quranic verses, such as the following: “Verily, those who have attained to faith (in this divine writ) as well as those who follow the Jewish faith, and the Christians, and the Sabians — all who believe in God and the Last Day and do righteous deeds — shall have their reward with their Sustainer; and no fear need they have, and neither shall they grieve” (Surah 2:62; this verse is repeated in an almost identical form in Surah 5:69).

“And they claim, ‘None shall ever enter paradise unless he be a Jew’ — or ‘a Christian’. Such are their wishful beliefs! Say: ‘Produce an evidence for what you are claiming, if what you say is true!’ Yea, indeed: everyone who surrenders his whole being unto God, and is a doer of good withal, shall have his reward with his Sustainer; and all such need have no fear, and neither shall they grieve” (Surah 2:111-112).

“And be conscious of the Day on which you shall be brought back unto God, whereupon every human being shall be repaid in full for what he has earned, and none shall be wronged” (Surah 2:281).

Since God is the universal creator who sends guidance to all humanity, Muslims are commanded by the Quran to affirm the divine message given to all the previous prophets. It is stated in Surah 40:78: “And, indeed, (O Mohammad,) We sent forth apostles before your time; some of them We have mentioned to you, and some of them We have not mentioned to you.” While only 25 prophets are mentioned in the Quran, the above-cited verse indicates the passage of other prophets as well. Indeed, Surah 16:84 tells us that God “shall raise up a witness out of every community”.

The Quran enjoins Muslims to affirm the continuity of Islam with previous revelations and prophets and not to make a distinction amongst them, as can be seen from verses such as the following: “Say, We believe in God, and in that which has been bestowed from on high upon us, and that which has been bestowed upon Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and their descendants, and that which has been vouchsafed to Moses and Jesus, and that which has been vouchsafed to all the (other) prophets by their Sustainer: we make no distinction between any of them. And it is unto Him that we surrender ourselves” (Surah 2:136).

The injunction is repeated in the third surah in identical words: “Say, We believe in God, and in that which has been bestowed from on high upon us, and that which has been bestowed upon Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and their descendants, and that which has been vouchsafed by their Sustainer unto Moses and Jesus and all the (other) prophets: we make no distinction between any of them. And unto Him do we surrender ourselves” (Surah 3:84).

The writer is a scholar of Islam and Iqbal, teaching at the University of Louisville, US.

Email: rshass01@gwise.louisville.edu

By Asghar Ali Engineer
Friday, 24 Jul, 2009


RATIONALISTS generally think faith and reason are contradictory and where there is faith reason has no place. In other words faith is blind. Is it true?

It depends at what level we are examining the issue. It is certainly true if we look at it at the level of the masses, generally poor and illiterate. They need faith which can provide them with some security in a world hostile to them. They are exploited, oppressed and denied any security of life and dignity. It is in this sense that Marx describes religion as the opiate of the masses. It gives them consolation and kills their pain, otherwise unbearable.

However, at the level of educated, rich and otherwise secure individuals, religion assumes a more complex role. Some such privileged people reject it as ‘blind faith’ and even ridicule it. Some, having no deeper faith, treat it as an instrument to exploit the ‘gullible’. Many politicians using religion for their ends would fall in the latter category.

There is yet another category of people who may lack a deeper faith, but they rationalise its beliefs for their own intellectual satisfaction. Among those are educated intellectuals who want to keep both their faith and intellect but lack both in a deeper sense. Rationalising beliefs is different from using reason to catch the essence of religion and separate what is essential from cultural and other accretions. A sharp intellect like that of Farabi, Ibn Sina or Ibn Rushd is needed for that, or one has to be a Ghazali to take one’s faith seriously.

If we examine the dialectics of faith and reason, rising above all prejudices, we will find that faith and reason are not only not contradictory but complementary. Both are needed for a meaningful human existence. Blind faith or superstitious belief is as harmful as faithless razor-sharp reason. The latter may result in scepticism. Faith is very important for even a scientist. A statement that the sun will appear tomorrow also from the east as it has been appearing for thousands of years is also a statement of faith — faith in the laws of nature.

A pure rationalist on the brink of scepticism may reject that statement as having an element of faith in it. In Islam faith in certain core beliefs — what the Quran calls iman — is quite central. The important question is faith in what? First, faith in core beliefs like the oneness of God, His prophets, the holy books and the day of judgment.

Secondly, faith is required in the values emphasised by the Quran, like truth, justice, benevolence, compassion and wisdom. Thirdly, there is iman bil-ghayb, in the unseen and unknown, as our senses have limited powers. Many unseen worlds have been discovered expanding horizons of our universe to billions of light years and beyond.

But in the name of faith, aqidah, there have been innumerable additions over the centuries. It is these historical accretions from culture, customs and traditions and superstitious beliefs today that form part of our ‘faith’. These accretions are totally irrational and are accepted blindly. And as it happens in human society, powerful vested interests have developed around these superstitious beliefs. It also includes miracle-mongering from a crude to a sophisticated level. This has nothing to do with Quranic teachings or iman.

Reason in the Quran is as central as iman. The Quran lays great emphasis on fikr, aql and tadabbir (thinking, rationality and contemplation). There are a number of verses in the Quran emphasising the use of these faculties. Also, the Quran invites human beings, even opponents of the Prophet of Islam (PBUH), to observe nature, go around the world (siru fil-ard) and see for themselves how nature functions. The Quran also says that only ulema (those in the know, observers of nature and scientists) really fear Allah (35:28) as their knowledge of this universe and the majesty of its creation hold them in awe.

Knowledge is so important in Islam that the Quran mentions the word ‘ilm’ and its derivatives 856 times, a record number; ‘jihad’ and its derivates, for instance, are mentioned only 41 times. Thus, a Muslim must have faith in the core teachings of Islam and their values; a Muslim must strive for achieving the highest level of knowledge and must constantly strive, with the exercise of reason and intellectual power, in order to counter traditional accretions; a Muslim must confront irrational practices that have crept in society in the name of religion.

A Muslim combats blind faith with imbibing rational faith with deeper conviction. His conviction being unshakeable in rational faith, he is not afraid of exploring new horizons of knowledge. These explorations further strengthen his iman (faith) and widen the knowledge of Allah’s creation. Only the weak in faith are afraid of reason. A man of faith always searches for new knowledge while praying, as taught by the Quran: “O Lord! Increase my knowledge (20:114).”

The writer is an Islamic scholar who heads the Centre for Study of Society & Secularism, Mumbai.

Of wills and bequests

By Dr Riffat Hassan
Friday, 31 Jul, 2009


IN order to fully understand the intent and content of the Quranic prescriptions regarding inheritance stated in Surah 4:11-12 and 176, it is necessary to note that it is stated four times in these verses that a person’s assets are divided “… after (the deduction of) any bequest he may have made, or any debt (he may have incurred)”.

What this means is that when a person dies, from what he/she leaves behind, bequests that he/she may have made in a will, as well as any debts that may have accrued, have to be deducted before the inheritance is divided according to the Quran.

A very important implication of the cited statement is that every Muslim who leaves behind any material possession is required to make a will as enjoined in Surah 2:180 which states: “It is ordained for you, when death approaches any of you, leaving behind wealth, to make a bequest for the benefit of his (her) parents and (other) near of kin, in accordance of what is fair: this is an obligation on all who are conscious of God.”

The Quran has enjoined not only the making of a will, but also its witnessing, as stated in Surah 5:106-108: “O you who have attained faith! Let there be witnesses between you when death approaches you and you make bequests: two persons of probity from among your own people; or two other persons from (among people) other than your own, if you are travelling in the land (and are far from home) and the visitation of death befalls you. Take hold of the two after the prayer, and each of them shall swear by God, if you are doubtful, ‘We will not sell it (the truth) for any price, even if it were (a change that may benefit) a near kin, nor will we hide any of what we have witnessed in God’s presence, for then we would surely be among the wrongdoers’.

“But if it be discovered afterwards that both of them have committed a wrongdoing, then two others — from among these (the heirs of the deceased) whose rights have been hurt by the (initial testimony of the (former) two — shall take their place and swear by God, ‘Our testimony is indeed truer than the testimony of these (former) two, and we have not transgressed the bounds of what is right, for then we would assuredly be among the evildoers’. Thus it will be more likely that people will offer testimony properly (in accordance with the truth), or else they will fear that their oaths may be rebutted after they pronounce them.”

Regarding the stipulation that the will should be witnessed by two persons of good repute, Dr Fathi Osman aptly observes, “It is significant that no differentiation between male and female witnesses is mentioned with regard to the two witnesses required for hearing the oral statement of a will.”

As stated earlier, bequests (and debts) mentioned in a will must be deducted before the inheritance can be divided among the heirs. Stating that bequests should be made in the light of the special needs and circumstances of the heirs of the deceased person, Dr Fathi Osman observes: “In general a personal will which would be designed according to the special circumstances of the family of the deceased, is given priority to the general mandatory rules given by the Quran in the verses 4:11-12, 176. These general mandatory rules have to be applied to the whole legacy of the deceased person if he/she has not left any valid will, and they have to be applied to part of the legacy” when there is a valid will in which bequests have been recorded.

It should be noted in the light of the foregoing analysis of the Quranic stipulations with regard to inheritance that though the share of a son is twice that of a daughter, it is possible for parents to provide, in their lifetime, for the special needs of the latter through a bequest recorded in the legal will (wasiyya). As stated earlier, a bequest, along with any debts, would be deducted from the legacy of the deceased before distribution amongst heirs.

Explaining that in Islam the legal responsibility for maintaining the family rests on the man, Dr Fathi Osman points out that “every female has a man to provide all her needs, be he a father, a husband, a brother or a son, and thus her share in the inheritance will be something additional for her personal disposal while her needs are fulfilled by the nearest male kin who is legally responsible for such maintenance. When this is not the case, and the woman has to earn her own living, and fulfill her own needs, the personal will can respond specifically to different circumstances”.

The foregoing account demonstrates that if the Quranic prescriptions regarding inheritance are understood in their historical and cultural context, they do not discriminate against women. In fact, if properly implemented, they would greatly enhance women’s economic empowerment.

The writer is a scholar of Iqbal and Islam, teaching at the University of Louisville, US.
rshass01@gwise.louisville.edu

What is Islamic heritage?

By Asghar Ali Engineer
Friday, 07 Aug, 2009

WE Muslims proudly refer to our heritage but Islamic heritage is, like any other heritage, very complex in nature. Is it a religious heritage, cultural or a civilisational heritage? It should be noted that heritage could be traditional as well as rational.

We hardly specify what we mean by Islamic heritage. While traditional heritage has its own importance, and is as much part of Islamic history, we hardly emphasise our rational heritage. The Quran lays great emphasis on reason (aql) and knowledge (ilm), but in our traditional inheritance reason has been used more as rationalising what is dogmatic than as an instrument of critically examining the given issues at hand.

Our traditional ulema developed ilm al-kalam to defend traditions and dogmas. And, in like manner, knowledge was sought to be confined to that of traditional beliefs: what is generally referred to as deen.

Imam Ashari was the leader of those who demolished what was rational, and today our beliefs are mostly based on Imam Ashari’s formulations. There was a heated debate between the traditionalist Ashaira and the rationalist Mutazila in the early years of Islam. What survived was the Ashaira’s heritage; the Mutazila’s became history. The debate between the Ashaira and Mutazila is an interesting part of our history, and a valuable part of Islamic heritage.

Various philosophical debates started right from the early periods of Islam. As a result, sects like Jabriya and Qadriya also came into existence. During the early Umayyad period, a fierce debate raged as to whether a human being was free to decide his destiny or whether the latter was predetermined. It acquired a political hue.

Those who believed that man was not a free agent were by and large supporters of the Umayyads. The implication was that the Umayyads’ rule was predestined by Allah and must be accepted as such; human beings could not do anything about it. Those who believed that man was a free agent were the opponents of Umayyad rule. They argued that Umayyad rule was not predestined by Allah, and could be overturned. Allah cannot predestine rule by oppressors. It is interesting to note that Imam Hasan Basri, a great alim and opponent of the Umayyad rule, sided with those who believed that a human being was a free agent. He quoted from the writings of Imam Hasan — grandson of the Prophet (PBUH) — to reinforce his position.

Again, during the Abbasid period another controversy erupted. It too became politicised. The controversy was about the createdness (makhluq) or uncreatedness (ghayr makhluq) of the Quran. The Abbasids sided with the Mutazila on this question, who believed in the createdness of the Quran.

The Mutazila were the supporters of the Abbasids and hence the Abbasids took the side of the createdness of the Quran in that debate. The Abbasids had come to power by overthrowing the Umayyads. Those traditionalists who, now, were politically neutral, opposed the Mutazila doctrine, and were persecuted by the Abbasids. Anyone who opposed the doctrine of the createdness of the Quran was considered the opponent of the Abbasids.

Thus, it was the traditionalists who were persecuted in the early history of Islam by the rationalists when the latter rose to power. It was only during the time of the Abbasid caliph Mutasim that the doctrine of the createdness of the Quran was abandoned officially. Even the great Imam Abu Hanifa, who was opposed to the Umayyads, was lashed by the Abbasid caliph for refusing to subscribe to the doctrine of the createdness of the Quran.

The lesson is that a regime should never politically endorse or enforce a certain doctrine — traditional or rational — by use of force. The people should be left to believe what they want to believe. It is not for nothing that the Quran pronounces that there cannot be any compulsion in matters of deen. Yet, neither the traditionalists nor the rationalists historically honoured this Quranic doctrine in practice.

It is important to note that many intellectuals during 19th-century British colonial rule were influenced by the Mutazila rationalism, and they tried to understand the Quran under this influence. Even Sir Syed, a modernist who tried to spread modern education among Muslims in the late 19th century, wrote his Quranic commentary under the influence of the Mutazila, as rationalism again acquired central importance.

There is a sharp contrast between the Umayyad and the Abbasid period. The former supported all traditional positions which resulted in stagnation and the latter supported rational positions which resulted in an era of Islamic enlightenment. The Abbasid regime saw great intellectual achievements and even Europe, which was then passing through the dark ages, learnt much from this rational Islamic heritage.

The Bait al-Hikma (house of wisdom) which the Abbasids established in Baghdad became the centre of new knowledge. H.G. Wells in his Short History of the World described Arabs as the foster fathers of knowledge and philosophy. Europe would not have discovered Greek heritage but for this house of wisdom. It is certainly a lasting contribution of the Arabs to human heritage as a whole.

The writer is an Islamic scholar who heads the Centre for Study of Society & Secularism, Mumbai.

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Understanding what is Sharia

It is ironic that the term ‘sharia’ should have become the symbol of unchanging and rigid laws

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By Dr Riffat Hassan
Friday, 14 Aug, 2009

WHAT is Sharia is the subject of an intense debate going on not only in Pakistan but globally, both amongst Muslims and between Muslims and non-Muslims. This, while the majority of those who are engaged in the debate do not often know the original or the classical meaning of Sharia.
Given the importance of Sharia in the lives of millions of Muslims, it is critical that the term be correctly understood. Explaining this term, Dr Gamal Solaiman, a notable Egyptian scholar educated at Cairo’s Al-Azhar University, observes that “the word ‘sharia’ literally means a way leading to a watering place where people have access to indispensable life ingredients”.

He refers to Surah 21:31 which states: “We made out of water every living thing.” As water is the essence of all living things, so Sharia represents what is essential for a human being’s spiritual and social development.

Dr Solaiman has pointed out that the word is used in the Quran in three places. One reference is in Surah 42:13 which states: “In matters of Sharia, He (God) has ordained for you that which He had enjoined upon Noah — and into which We gave thee (O Muhammad) insight through revelation — as well as that which We had enjoined upon Abraham and Moses and Jesus: Steadfastly uphold the (true) faith, and do not break up your unity therein.” Here, Sharia “stands for the essence of all revealed religions with regard to acknowledging God, being obedient to Him and guided by Him”.

A second reference is in Surah 5:48 which states: “And unto thee (O Prophet) have we vouchsafed this divine writ, setting forth the truth, confirming the truth of whatever there still remains of earlier revelations and determining what is true therein. Judge, then, between the followers of earlier revelations in accordance with the Sharia that God has bestowed from on high, and do not follow their errant views, forsaking the truth that has come unto thee.” A third reference is found in Surah 45:18 which states: “And finally, (O Muhammad,) We have set thee on a Sharia by which the purpose (of faith) may be fulfilled: so follow thou this (way), and follow not the likes and dislikes of those who do not know (the truth).” Dr Solaiman has pointed out that in the above-cited second and third references, ‘sharia’ “is used to indicate the practical course for a human being’s development and well-being, morally, socially, economically and otherwise”. Sharia is defined in terms similar to Dr Solaiman’s by E.W. Lane who states in his monumental Arabic-English Lexicon that, according to the authors of authoritative Arabic lexicons, the Taj al-Arus, the Tadheeb and the Misbah, the Arabs do not apply the term ‘sharia’ to “any but (a watering place) such as is permanent and apparent to the eye, like the water of a river, not water from which one draws with the well-rope”.

Explicating the above, a modern lexicon, Lughat ul-Quran, states that the term ‘sharia’ refers to a straight and clear path, and also to a watering place where both humans and animals come to drink water, provided the source of water is a flowing stream or river.

It is extremely ironic that the term ‘sharia’, which embodies the idea of fluidity and mobility as part of its very structure, should have become the symbol of rigid and unchanging laws not only for non-Muslims in general, but also many Muslims in the world. The primary sources of the Sharia are the Quran and the Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Historically speaking, the Sharia has been understood in general terms to refer to a code of principles which regulates the diverse aspects of a Muslim’s life.

It is much wider in meaning and application than the term ‘fiqh’, which means jurisprudence. Though often the two terms are used interchangeably, they are different in meaning. Dr Fathi Osman has pointed out that the difference between the two terms is comparable to the difference between ‘law’ and ‘jurisprudence’ in English.

With reference to the Sharia, Dr Osman has stated: “God’s laws are meant to remove difficulties and inconveniences and not create them…. Whenever certain circumstances make the implementation of a rule of Sharia result in mass difficulties or inconvenient pressures, the general principle of ‘God does not want to place you in a difficulty’ (Surah 5:6; Surah 22:78) and ‘God does not burden any human being with more than he is well able to bear’ … would apply to stop the public difficulty or to respond to the public necessity or need, and in such a case any legal detail can be suspended for the sake of maintaining the general goals and principles of Sharia.” Dr Osman notes with emphasis that Sharia is “meant to guard and protect the physical and moral purity and wholeness of the individual and society, not just to impose taboos and punishments”. ¦ The writer, a scholar of Iqbal and Islam, teaches at the University of Louisville, US.

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Business ethics in Islam

By Syed Imad-ud-Din Asad & Sidrah Unis
Friday, 21 Aug, 2009

THE term ‘business ethics’ refers to the behaviour that a business entity is supposed to adhere to in its interaction with society, transactions with customers and internal affairs. The concept of business ethics is as old as business.

Initially, different cultures and regions had different ethics of business. However, with increasing globalisation, various sets of business ethics are continuously acquiring common values and forms. As Islam has given guiding principles for all human activities, it also prescribes and explains the ethics of business. However, the Quran is not the only spiritual text that lays down such instructions. The Bible, for instance, also has many notions that can be and have been applied to commercial activities.

Similarly, Muslims were not the first to conceive the idea of business ethics. Plato discussed justice in The Republic and Aristotle explicitly discussed economic relations, trade and commerce in his Politics. Many Muslims are unaware that Aristotle too condemned usury. Also, he gave the classic definition of justice as giving each his due, treating equals equally and trading equals for equals.

These issues were also analysed by Christian thinkers. For instance, Thomas Aquinas discussed business in the context of justice and honesty, and condemned usury. Luther, Calvin and John Wesley, among other personalities of the Reformation, discussed trade and commerce, and led the way in the development of the Protestant work ethic. However, in the modern West, economic activity has been divorced from religion just as politics has been separated from religion.

If we compare Islamic business ethics with present-day western business ethics, we find numerous similarities between them. For instance, workplace harassment, discrimination in hiring and promotion, employment benefits, layoffs, conflicts of interest, quality control, misuse of business assets, environmental pollution etc. are matters on which Islamic and western approaches are more or less similar.

In fact, regarding such matters of common approach, Islam often lays down more benevolent provisions and puts more stress on their observance. For example, in the context of the employee-employer relationship, Islam very clearly declares that both enjoy the same dignity, socially and legally. As a general rule, Muslims are instructed to choose for their fellowmen what they choose for themselves.

Specifically speaking, the Prophet (PBUH), in his farewell sermon, instructed Muslims not only to feed and clothe their slaves in the same manner that they did themselves, but also not to treat the slaves harshly even if they were at fault. Applying this to employees, one can imagine the standard of working environments and employment benefits that Islam entails.

Yet, just as there are differences between other aspects of Islamic and western practices, Islamic and western business ethics too have certain differences. The most important discerning features are their sources and nature. While western business ethics are secular, Islamic business ethics originate from the Quran and the Sunnah.

A breach of the former never results in the violator incurring a sin. In case of the latter, a breach always causes divine displeasure. Consequently, Muslims abide by these instructions not only for the betterment of society, but also to secure their afterlife.

This also means that even if there is no supervisory authority, a Muslim is still bound to comply with these norms. For instance, Islam does not allow an entity to deal in alcohol, drugs, gambling, gharar, pork, pornography, prostitution and riba. In jurisdictions where all or some of these things are allowed, Muslims living there avoid them because Islam has prohibited these trades.

In other words, Islamic business ethics are observed by the believers in Muslim and non-Muslim jurisdictions alike. Thus, a Muslim would never neglect welfare of the employees, performance of business covenants, quality standards, environment, social responsibilities of the enterprise etc. whether he is in Pakistan or anywhere else in the world.

Syed Imad-ud-Din Asad is a graduate of Harvard Law School and a lawyer. Sidrah Unis is a law graduate and an under-training civil servant.

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Family planning is no sin

By Asghar Ali Engineer
Friday, 28 Aug, 2009

IT remains a controversial issue among Muslims. Some, like the Taliban, maintain that Islam has no place for family planning; others say it is not at all against the tenets of Islam.

Some mullahs oppose it on grounds that the Prophet (PBUH) urged us to increase the number of Muslims. They should, therefore, multiply their numbers. They also quote a verse from the Quran, “And kill not your children for fear of poverty — We provide for them and for you. Surely killing them is a great wrong.” (17:31).

In this verse what is being said is not related to family planning for the following reasons. One, the verse speaks of children born and not those who have not even been conceived yet. Two, no one would ever advocate killing children already born or even conceived and in an advanced stage of pregnancy. It would certainly amount to killing.

According to Imam Raghib in Mufradat (which is a dictionary of the Quran), here the killing of children means not giving them proper education as ignorance is intellectual death and intellectual death is worse than physical death in a sense. If what Imam Raghib says is taken as the latent meaning of the above verse, it strengthens the position of those who advocate family planning. To have more children means that parents will not be able to properly educate them.

Not only that but parents will not even be able to feed them and give them nourishing food necessary for good health and upbringing. This will be possible if the number of children is less. Interestingly, this was the position of Imam Shafii, while explaining verse 4:3. The last words of this verse, which mainly relate to polygamy are: dhalika adna alla taulu, which is normally rendered as ‘This is more proper so that you may not do injustice.” But Imam Shafii translates it as, “So that you may not increase your progeny” (from the Arabic ayal).

Thus Imam Shafii says the meaning of the verse would be if you fear you cannot do justice then marry once so that you may not have more children. If Imam Shafii’s translation is accepted then the Quran itself advocates having fewer children or spacing children in such a way that you may not feel burdened and may educate them properly and nourish them properly, as Imam Raghib also says.

Some other commentators maintain the verse 17:31 relates to the tradition among Arabs of killing their daughters. They used to argue that being poor they could not provide for them. Therefore, Allah says, “We provide for them and for you.” In any case there is no question of killing children already born. Family planning is certainly not about killing children but spacing them and restricting their number to match one’s income.

Imam Ghazali also quotes a number of traditions from the Prophet (PBUH) to show that the prevention of an unwanted birth is permissible, especially if the mother’s health is in danger. According to him both husband and wife can prevent the birth of a child with mutual consent. Ghazali goes one step further and says conception can be prevented even if the mother’s beauty is likely to be affected.

He even approves of various ways of aborting a child, up to the third month of pregnancy, if the mother’s health is in danger, and shows some ways of abortion. Many jurists maintain that abortion on grounds of saving the mother’s life is permissible up to the third month of pregnancy, as according to the Quran, Allah infuses life in the fourth stage of conception. Hazrat Ali is also reported to have approved of abortion up to the third month in case of danger to the mother’s life on the basis of this Quranic verse.

Also, the Prophet had permitted azl (coitus interruptus) if one goes with one’s wife on a long journey and does not want his wife to bear a child while travelling. Some scholars argue that azl should be taken in a much wider meaning, and can justify today the use of contraceptives, as azl was the only known contraceptive in those days.

Also, family planning was not a necessity in those days and this question did not arise as in our own times. In those days the question arose only on grounds of the mother’s life or health. Thus, we need to answer this question ourselves. One can also use the doctrine of zarrorah (necessity), which declares even haram as halal if there is a pressing necessity.

In any case it would not be correct to denounce family planning as a sin. It basically involves the prevention of unwanted pregnancy, nothing more and nothing less.

The writer is an Islamic scholar, and heads the Centre for Study of Society & Secularism, Mumbai

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Fundamentalism: what is it?

By Dr Riffat Hassan
Friday, 04 Sep, 2009

A MAJOR difficulty that Muslims encounter in the negatively charged, media-dominated environment in the US, particularly after 9/11 is the use of loaded language to refer to the central tenets of Islam.

One word which has been used extensively to depict Islam as a religion which is narrow-minded, rigid and militant is ‘fundamentalism’. It is important to note that the word comes from the history not of Islam but American Christianity.

The term which The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary dates to 1923, emerged in the wake of the publication between 1905 and 1915 of 12 theological tracts entitled The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth.

These writings by biblical literalists denounced the adoption by other Protestant theologians of a scientific-critical approach to the study of the Bible. Their authors — as pointed out by George Marsden in The Encyclopedia of Religion — “consider it a chief Christian duty to combat uncompromisingly ‘modernist’ theology and certain secularising cultural trends. Organised militancy is the feature that most clearly distinguishes fundamentalists from other evangelicals. Fundamentalism is primarily an American phenomenon”.

It is also important to note that there is no counterpart of the word ‘fundamentalism’ as described above in any Islamic text or languages spoken by Muslims. However, the term also has a wider meaning in English lexicons which define a fundamentalist as a person who believes in the fundamentals of something. This is the sense in which many English-proficient Muslims use this term and apply it to themselves since they believe in the fundamentals of Islam such as belief in God and the prophets sent by God, in divine books and the Day of Judgment etc.

It is most unfortunate that the terms ‘fundamentalism’ and ‘fundamentalist’ as used in American Christianity have acquired wide currency not only amongst non-Muslims but also amongst Muslims. Since colonised people often internalise the vocabulary of the coloniser, the adoption of these terms by Muslims, though highly regrettable, is not surprising.

The fact that these terms are not Islamic is recognised by well-known Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars. For instance, Bernard Lewis, a Jewish scholar of Islam, states: “It is now common usage to apply the term ‘fundamentalist’ to a number of Islamic radical and militant groups. The use of this term is established and must be accepted, but it remains unfortunate and can be misleading. Fundamentalist is a Christian term.”

Fredrick M. Denny, a Christian scholar of Islam, states: “In recent years it has become popular to refer to conservative militant Muslims as fundamentalists. The name does not quite apply when taken at its original meaning.”

Seyyed Hossein Nasr, a Muslim scholar of Islam, states: “As far as ‘fundamentalism’ is concerned, use of the term by journalists and even scholars to refer to a wide variety of phenomena in the Islamic world and currents in Islamic thought is most unfortunate and misleading because the term is drawn from the Christian context, where it has quite a different connotation.”

The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary refers to the common western understanding of ‘fundamentalism’ as “Strict adherence to traditional orthodox tenets (e.g. the literal inerrancy of Scripture) held to be fundamental to the Christian faith opposed to liberalism and modernism”. In other words, from this perspective there is stark opposition between ‘fundamentalism’ on the one hand, and ‘modernism’ and ‘liberalism’ on the other hand.

However, many Muslim thinkers of the last three centuries, acutely conscious of the stagnation and decadence in their societies, have sought to re-infuse the dynamism of Islam in their writings through the application of ‘modern’, ‘liberal’ ideas. The most outstanding amongst them was Allama Iqbal who has been a source of creative energy and inspiration to millions of Muslims though he was a ‘fundamentalist’ in that he strongly advocated a return to the Quran, which he regarded as the embodiment of what is fundamental in Islam.

How fundamentalism, modernism and liberalism, as Muslims understand these terms today, came together in the writings of Iqbal may be seen from the following excerpt:

“I know the ulema of Islam claim finality for the popular school of Muslim law. For fear of ... disintegration, the conservative thinkers of Islam focused all their efforts on the one point of preserving a uniform social life for the people by a jealous exclusion of all innovations in the law of Shariat as expounded by the early doctors of Islam.

“…Since things have changed and the world of Islam is today confronted and affected by new forces set free by the extraordinary development of human thought in all its directions, I see no reason why this attitude (of the ulema) should be maintained any longer.... The claim of the present generation of Muslim liberals to reinterpret the foundational legal principles, in the light of their own experience and altered conditions of modern life, is in my opinion, perfectly justified.

“The teaching of the Quran that life is a process of progressive creation necessitates that each generation, guided but unhampered by the work of its predecessors, should be permitted to solve its own problems.”

The writer is a scholar of Iqbal and Islam, teaching at the University of Louisville, US. rshass01@gwise.louisville.edu

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The Quran and ‘fate’

By Asghar Ali Engineer
Friday, 11 Sep, 2009

IS a person’s fate predetermined by Allah? This is a very common belief among many, though not all, Muslims. What is the truth?

The discussion about taq dir is not new. This was vigorously debated first during the Umayyad period and again, as far as India is concerned, in the 19th century. Such discussions become more vigorous either when people face a serious crisis or when a whole community is in decline.

The discussion became important during the Umayyad period as a result of a political crisis. The Umayyad’s very legitimacy was in doubt as Yazid, the first successor caliph of his father, Muawiyah, was the killer of the Prophet’s (PBUH) grandson Imam Husain. Thus the Umayyad regime was rejected by many Muslims as illegitimate and un-Islamic.

The supporters of the Umayyad regime came out with the rather ingenious argument that Yazid did what was destined by Allah and it was Husain’s destiny to be killed at his hands. Regardless, the Umayyads could not overcome their legitimacy crisis by such dubious arguments.

Likewise, when the Muslim ruling class was in serious decline in 19th-century India many Muslims again came out with this argument that it was predetermined and hence could not be helped. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan came out against this position with the Quranic verse: “Allah changes not the condition of a people until they change their own condition.” (13:11).

Since Sir Syed was trying to change the condition of Muslims who had become stagnant and were justifying their decline based on their taqdir, he had to come out with this Quranic argument. The question arises: what is taqdir? Is it something that Allah has destined for individuals, which cannot be altered under any circumstances and has to take place?

I think this is a total misconception. The word taqdir is derived actually from qudrat i.e. ability or power and one who has this ability is called qadir, and Allah is Qadir-i-Mutlaq, i.e. one who has absolute power or ability. From this word taqdir is derived which also means to estimate the proper ability to do something.

Allah has given innate abilities or competence to human beings and they act accordingly. It is for a human being to actualise an ability or competence. A human being has certain innate abilities which if not actualised will remain dormant and he or she will not be able to achieve anything. But it is a given that a human agent must act.

Instead, we have taken fate in a totally different meaning. We do not act to actualise our innate abilities and then blame our taqdir for our own inaction. One who does not act will suffer. Thus constant effort to achieve something is necessary. That is why Allah said clearly that He does not change the condition of those who do not care to change their own condition.

Imam Raghib Asfahani also says in his Mufradat al-Quran that when a human being is an actor (fail) of taqdir, it has two senses; one is taqdir-i-mahmood i.e. when one thinks and reflects with his/her intellect and then acts according to the result of such reflection, it is called taqdir-i-mahmood. Second is taqdir-i-mazmoom, i.e. when a person thinks or acts according to selfish desire it is taqdir-i-mazmoom. Such an act cannot result in the good of others. Of the taqdir-i-mazmoom Imam Raghib gives the example of verses 18-19 of Chapter 74. The Quran says, “Surely he reflected and determined. But may he be destroyed for how he determined.”

Thus this and other verses of the Quran clearly show that taqdir requires both reflection and thinking and acting for it does not indicate in any way remaining inactive and accepting one’s fate. Allah has given us all certain potential abilities and powers but has left us to act on and actualise a given situation. It is of course our fate to have certain potential but it is our choice to act or not to act on it.

In a sense we are all predetermined inasmuch as we have been gifted with a certain potential, but taqdir would not mean those abilities will come into effect automatically, without our acting this way or that on a given situation. In a sense to be born human is our fate but to be a meaningful human being who utilises his or her innate abilities depends on our actions.

Iqbal went to another extreme in this respect when he said that you should raise your ‘self’ (khudi) to a level where Allah should ask you what abilities and potentialities He should gift you (so that you can achieve excellence in your chosen field). Thus, one has to struggle and be dynamic to change one’s condition for the better and that of the world at large. That is the real meaning of taqdir.

The writer is an Islamic scholar who heads the Centre for Study of Society & Secularism, Mumbai.

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The essence of Ramazan

By Amna Saadat Ali
Friday, 18 Sep, 2009

ONE of the many virtues Ramazan inculcates in us is patience or sabr. The word has vast meanings and bears immense value for character-building.

It is a virtue to be employed when you find yourself in adverse circumstances; tempted towards sin or anti-social behaviour; trying to continue a charitable act; or staying firm for a purpose. It is one of the most trying principles to adhere to in life — needed most when you are prone to be agitated, to err or to wrong yourself or someone else.

This is exactly why the Quran quotes the sage Luqman thus: “And bear with patient constancy whatever betide you; for this is firmness (of purpose) in (the conduct of) affairs.” (31:17)

Sabr means different things in different situations and is practised differently to meet different ends. Yet it is such a pivotal personal characteristic that the Prophet’s (PBUH) companions did not part with one another until they recited Surah Al-Asr as a reminder to mutually enjoin sabr.

Being patient in your actions means constancy and regularity in performing good deeds i.e. systematic action as opposed to chance action. According to a hadith, the best action is one that is constant even if little. Continuing a good deed demands perseverance that brings enduring regularity.

Likewise, resisting evil temptations, anger, doubts or fear is an act of great self-restraint springing from the reserves of patience within oneself. To dispel or overcome these negative emotions you need to patiently yet sternly make your lower self comply with the higher conscience, like you would discipline a child. Similarly, firmness of purpose and steadfastness on the straight path requires patient perseverance. This means submitting yourself to Allah’s commands while patiently battling your baser self, society and detractors. Sabr is lifelong as opposed to one employed to pull you through an adverse situation.

In adverse circumstances, too, firstly we have been instructed to seek help and solace through sabr and prayer. In Surah Al-Baqarah Allah says, “Seek (Allah’s) help with patient perseverance and prayer: It is indeed hard, except to those who are humble” (v.45). In such trying times, a cheerful attitude of resignation and understanding defines sabr. Being content and happy with what life throws at you shows your resignation.

Understanding comes from the belief that you are not the only or the first one to go through this. As Allah informs: “Such days (of varying fortunes) We give to men by turns” (3:140). Understanding also comes from the realisation that you do not claim any special merit that would shield you from such grief, misfortune or suffering.

Secondly, during low times in life one should constantly praise Allah because that has the most unique honour and reward. According to a hadith the first ones to be called to paradise on the Day of Judgment will be the ones who praise Allah in times of happiness and adversity.

Thirdly, going through suffering and misfortune without complaining or constantly whining about your condition or what has befallen you is sabr. Imam Ghazali has written in Ahya-ul-uloom that Allah revealed to Hazrat Uzair (AS): “Do not complain to any makhluk (creation) when trouble befalls you; for I do not complain of your weakness and mistakes that come to me to the angels.”

Practising sabr is a challenge. Allah has warned in Surah Al-Baqarah (v.154) that man will surely be tried with some loss in wealth and lives, fear and hunger — all great periods of suffering in human lives. In the same verse He announces glad tidings for those who patiently persevere (in such conditions). Their description in the following verse is given as those on whom when some calamity falls they say (with a spirit of resignation and contentment) that to Allah they belong and to Him is their return. The reward for these people are the prayers and mercy of their Lord because they are rightly guided.

In another place in the Quran Allah says that verily the sabirun or patient souls will be granted their reward without measure. This is another very special honour because every other good deed, according to a hadith, will have between 10 and 700 rewards. Sabr is something that can earn one more than that — unlimited reward.

Ramazan is a time of renewal of consciousness which enables one to instill in oneself all virtues to live by. Since patience is tried during the fasting hours there is no better time to start practising this virtue.

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