cement and concrete

Cement is any chemical binding agent that makes things stick to it or each other. Examples of cement are "glue," "mortar," and "paste." Concrete is a construction material consisting of cement, water, and some type of granular crushed material like cinders, gravel, sand, slag, or stone. When water is added to the cement and granular material, it activates the cement, which is the element responsible for binding the mix to form a solid object. Cement is from Latin caementum, or 'quarry stone', referring to the crushed stone mixed to form a setting mortar. Eventually, the term was applied to the binding agent itself. Concrete's early meanings were 'formed by cohesion; solidified', from Latin concrescere, 'grow together'. The meaning 'construction material' dates only from the mid-19th century.






a dictionary, a lexicon, and a glossary

These reference books have slightly different denotations. A glossary is a specialized vocabulary with definitions but does not provide other information about the words. A glossary may also be called a vocabulary. A lexicon is generally an alphabetically-arranged list of words with their definitions, but the term does not imply that other information about the words is included. However, a lexicon can be used to mean glossary or dictionary, in which case it would contain what each of those words' definitions entail. Lexicon is considered by some to be a more formal word for dictionary. A dictionary is a reference book consisting of an alphabetically-arranged list of words with their definitions, as well as any or all of these: forms (spellings), pronunciations, functions (parts of speech), etymologies, and syntactical and idiomatic uses. So, dictionary is usually reserved for the more comprehensive type of word book. Lexicon's etymology is Greek, while dictionary's is Latin.








equinox and a solstice

Both of these terms refer to the path of the Sun throughout the year. The equinox is either of the two days or periods each year when the Sun crosses the equator and day and night are of equal length. The name equinox comes from Latin equinoxium, or 'equality between day and night'. The vernal (spring) equinox happens around March 20-21 and the autumnal equinox occurs around September 22-23 in the northern hemisphere (and vice-versa in the southern hemisphere). The solstice is one day when the Sun is at its northernmost point (Tropic of Cancer) and another day when the Sun is at its southernmost point (Tropic of Capricorn). The summer solstice in the northern hemisphere (also the winter solstice in the southern hemisphere) happens around June 21-22. The winter solstice in the northern hemisphere (also the summer solstice in the southern hemisphere) occurs around December 22. Latin solstitium translates to 'Sun standing still', which is what it appears to do.








fructose, glucose, lactose, maltose, and sucrose

Glucose (also called dextrose) and fructose (also called levulose or fruit sugar) are simple sugars. Glucose is found in plant saps and fruits and fructose is in fruits, honey, and green plants. Sucrose - ordinary table sugar from juices, fruits, and roots - is a disaccharide or double sugar as is lactose (also called milk sugar), and maltose. Maltose (also called malt sugar) is found in beer and malt whisky. There are also polysaccharides, complex carbohydrates which include cellulose and starch. The shared suffix -ose (from French) means 'carbohydrate' or 'sugar'.







an epicure, a gourmet, and a gourmand

A gourmet is a connoisseur of food and drink; the more refined term for this is epicure. A gourmand is also one with discriminating taste in food and wine, though this term is often applied to someone who has an excessive fondness for good food and drink, a glutton. Gourmet's etymology is French for 'wine taster' and gourmand, while French, is of unknown origin. Epicure is Latin for 'a follower of Epicurus', an ancient Greek philosopher who discussed giving oneself up to sensual pleasure and professed that pleasure was the highest good. There are actually a few more words of this type of description, like gastronome 'a judge of good eating' and the terms bon vivant and bon viveur, 'one who enjoys wining and dining'.








a homograph, homonym, and homophone

Homographs are words that are spelled alike, but have different meanings and usually different pronunciations, e.g., "stalk" as a plant stem and as the verb meaning to pursue stealthily. Homographs also come from entirely different sources. Homophones are words that are pronounced the same but which are different in spelling and meaning, e.g., "to", "two", and "too". Not all words that are spelled identically are pronounced identically, so they may be homographs without being homophones, e.g., "lead" as a metal and as the verb 'to go in front'. Homonyms are words spelled or pronounced alike but which have different meanings. Since homonym can be used to (ambiguously) describe either a homograph or homophone, it is best avoided.









informal / nonformal, nonstandard, and slang words

The status or stylistic labels informal and nonformal as well as colloquial are terms applied to written usage at the lowest level on the scale of formality. These are the most relaxed and the least constrained forms of written language, the language which we use when writing to close friends and relatives, and to colleagues and others whom we know well. These terms are perfectly acceptable Standard English as long as their use is limited to contexts appropriate for informality. In many dictionaries, the use of the label nonstandard is the most restrictive, applied to forms and usages that educated speakers and writers consider unacceptable. Slang is an extremely informal style of language that is vivid, often extravagant and facetious, in its striving for rhetorical effect.









judo, jujitsu, karate, kung fu, and tae kwon do

Judo, jujitsu, and karate are Japanese in origin; kung fu is Chinese and tae kwon do is Korean. Jujitsu (also spelled jujutsu, jiujitsu, jiujutsu) is a weaponless series of holds, throws, and thrusts used to overturn or disable the opponent - and judo is a refined version of these movements that focuses on quick movement. Both jujitsu and judo translate to ju 'soft' + jitsu 'art, skill'. Karate (translating to 'empty hand') is similar to jujitsu but involves sharp, quick blows to sensitive parts of the opponent's body. Kung fu ('art, skill') is the Chinese version of this, but weapons are sometimes used. Tae kwon do is similar to karate and the term translates tae 'to trample' + kwon 'fist' + do 'way' - or 'way to defeat/trample with the fists'.









literally and figuratively

Literally means 'with truth to the letter; exactly' or according to the strictest sense of the word or words. Figuratively means 'by or as a figure of speech; metaphorically', or 'in a descriptive, analogous, but metaphorical sense of the word or words'. So, you can say: He is literally six-feet four-inches tall. By that, you are saying: He is actually six-feet four-inches tall. For figuratively you could say: I feel figuratively dead from overwork. By that, you are saying: I feel dead in a metaphorical sense from overwork. Few words in the English language are misused as much as literally. It means 'in a literal sense ... not imaginatively, figuratively, or freely'. Sometimes, people use bad metaphors and try to justify them by the improper use of literally. It is also possible to express great emphasis by using the phrase literally and figuratively!







intense and intensive

The best way to illustrate the difference between the words is to say that emotions are intense, while an action that is sustained (such as attention or an application) is intensive. Intense comes from within, while intensive comes from without, i.e., it is imposed or assumed. Intense details a quality or condition (The cold was intense), but intensive implies that the degree or force is very high or strenuous (He received intensive training in meditation). Intense comes from Latin intensus and intendere 'stretched, strained'. Intensive came into English later, but evolved from the same Latin root. When words share roots, their meanings may not diverge enough for English speakers to easily discern the differences.








a monologue and a soliloquy

In origin, the words are doublets: Greek monologue and Latin soliloquy both mean 'single speech'. But they are now distinguished in performances with monologue as a speech made by one person in the company of others while a soliloquy is spoken by one person who is alone. A monologue is a long speech delivered by one person who forgets or neglects the others who are there, with an example being "The Vagina Monologues." Hamlet's "To be or not to be" is a great example of a soliloquy. We also think of monologue in the context of late-night talk shows or comedy clubs where the host or performer does a stand-up comedy routine.








nuclear and atomic

The atom is the smallest identifiable unit of matter. It has a nucleus which contains one or more protons and then one or more electrons orbiting in outer layers. The word nuclear in the phrase 'nuclear bomb' means 'involving or related to atomic nuclei or an atomic nucleus'. The phrase in that sense can be used interchangeably with 'atomic bomb'. The two terms are synonymous when modifying energy and weapons terms. However, when talking about energy level or physics, nuclear denotes the dynamics of particles in the core of an atom, including the protons and neutrons. When talking about energy level, physics, or chemistry, atomic denotes the configuration of electrons that determines the chemistry of an atom and the dynamics of the particles in the outer layer, the electrons. In describing weapons, though, nuclear is a general term for weapons that release energy from nuclear reactions. Atomic refers to the earliest and least sophisticated weapons, which use nuclear fission. Then there is thermonuclear. Thermonuclear weapons use nuclear fusion, which results when the nuclei of hydrogen isotopes merge and release energy. Fusion takes place only at very high temperatures, so thermonuclear devices first set off a fission reaction, which triggers the fusion; some weapons have two fusion stages, the first initiating the second. In describing physics, atomic physics deals with the properties of atoms, which are mainly due to their electron configuration. Nuclear physics, on the other hand, deals only with nuclei. It studies the structure of nuclei, and their reactions and interactions.









partly and partially

Generally, the words may be used interchangeably to refer to some amount or degree that is less than the whole. For example, you can say: She is partly responsible for their fighting. / She is partially responsible for their fighting. However, partially may imply favoritism because it is related to 'partial' and does have the archaic sense 'in a biased manner'. To avoid ambiguity when describing favoritism, say: He is 'partial' to pizza. (Do not say: He was partially/partly favorable to pizza.)







regret and remorse

Regret describes emotions ranging from being disappointed to intense sorrow due mainly to an external circumstance or event. An example is: She regrets that the television show has been canceled. One can also regret a wrong done, as in: He regrets his mistakes. Remorse describes deep regret, involving anguish or guilt and self-reproach or repentance. Remorse is felt by someone for a sin or wrong they have committed. So: He felt remorse for lying to the teacher. Remorse is from the Latin remordere 'to bite again' - as remorse is a gnawing feeling of guilt from a past wrong. Regret is from the French regreter/regrater and originally was a synonym for regrate meaning 'complaint, lament'.







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