Source?

Functions Of Vitamins:

1. Vitamin A

i) Role: Vitamin A plays an important role in growth and body repair, keeps the skin smooth and essential for vision.
ii) Deficiency: it deficiency causes ―Night Blindness‖.
iii) Source: Fortified milk, butter, eggs, cream, leafy vegetables, carrot.

2. Vitamin B1

i) Role: it is an energy building vitamin, help in the digestion of carbohydrates, keep the heart and muscle stable and necessary for nerves.

ii) Deficiency: its deficiency causes Beri Beri, muscular weakness, cramps and heart swelling.
iii) Source: Pork, cereals, legumes, nuts and seeds.

3. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

i) Role: It is important in forming RBCs, protection of mouth and mucous membrane and skin.

ii) Deficiency: its deficiency causes ―Pellagra‖
iii) Source: Milk, leafy green vegetables, cereals etc.

4. Vitamin B3 (Niacin)

i)Role: Helps in releasing energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins, very essential for the DNA synthesis, used to lower elevated LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels in the blood, boosts the level of HDL, the 'good' cholesterol, in the body, essential for the proper digestion of the food etc.

ii) Deficiency: its deficiency causes Loss of appetite, Indigestion, Skin lesions, Mental imbalance etc.

iii) Source: Meat, poultry, fish, cereals, vegetables, peanuts, butter etc.

5. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

i) Role: it is essential for the production of antibodies, for the CNS and help in protein metabolism in the body.

ii) Deficiency: Skin problems, Nervous system disorders, Muscle spasms, Sleeplessness.

iii) Source: Meat, fish, poultry, vegetables, fruits etc.
6. Vitamin B12 (Cynocobalamin)
i) Role: it is important for carbohydrate and fat metabolism, growth of child and formation of blood.

ii) Deficiency: its deficiency causes ―anaemia‖
iii) Source: Meat, poultry, fish, seafood, eggs, milk.

7. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)

i) Role: It is essential for protection of bones and for healthy teeth and gums.
ii) Deficiency: its deficiency causes ―Scurvy‖
iii) Source: Citrus fruit, guava, pineapple, tomatoes, spinach, turnips, strawberry.

8. Vitamin D:

i) Role: It is very important for the growth of children.
ii) Deficiency: Its deficiency causes ―Rickets‖ in children and Osteoporosis in adults.

iii) Source: Egg yolk, liver, fish, milk.

9. Vitamin E:

i) Role: it plays an important role in wound healing, prevention of sterility, breaking blood clots and prevents damage of cells due to aging.

ii) Source: Leafy green vegetables, soya bean, cotton seed, liver, egg yolk, nuts etc.

iii) Deficiency: its deficiency slows down the formation of RBCs.

10. Vitamin K:

i) Role: essential for blood clotting.
ii) Deficiency: its deficiency causes ―Blood clotting Disorder
iii) Source: Leafy green vegetables, milk, fish, liver, alfalfa.

Minerals: Their Functions, Source and Sings Of Deficiency:

1. Calcium:

i) Role:

a) It is essential constituent of bones and teeth.
b) It is vital for metabolic process such as nerve function, muscle contraction, and blood clotting.
ii) Source: Dairy Products
iii) Deficiency: Osteomalacia (softening of bones), Osteoporosis, Rickets, Tetany

2. Iron:

i) Role: It is the key constituent of haemoglobin which helps in transfer of oxygen.
ii) Source: Eggs, Green Vegetables, Fortified foods, Cereals, White flour, Liver, Meat, Nuts,Peas.

iii) Deficiency: Anaemia, Increased susceptibility to infection.

3. Magnesium:

i) Role: it is essential for healthy bones; muscles and nervous tissues. It is needed for functioning of approx. 90 enzymes.
ii) Source: Eggs, leafy vegetables, fish, milk and dairy products.
iii) Deficiency: Anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, muscle problem, nausea, premenstrual problem.

4. Phosphorus:

i) Role: it is important for healthy bone tissues.
ii) Source: Dairy products, fruits, meat, pulses, leafy vegetables.
iii) Deficiency: Anaemia, demineralization of bones, nerve disorder, respirator problem,
weakness, weight loss.

5. Potassium:

i) Role: it is essential for intracellular fluid, maintenance of electrical potential of the nervous system and functioning of muscle and nerve tissues.
ii) Source: Cereals, coffee, fresh fruits, meat, vegetables, whole-grains, flour.
iii) Deficiency: General muscle paralysis and metabolic disorder.

6. Sodium:

i) Role: it is necessary for the control of the volume of extra cellular fluid in the body maintenance of pH of the body, and electrical potentials of the nervous system.
ii) Source: Bakery products, Table salts
iii) Deficiency: Low blood pressure, general muscle weakness, respiratory problems.

__________________
God has sent us to do something special,Life is once for all but not to be Repeated by a pendulum.

Brother i dont receive these notes from sky.

Source is brain.

__________________
God has sent us to do something special,Life is once for all but not to be Repeated by a pendulum.

Computer:

“The word Computer is derived from compute which means to calculate. In simple and technical term it is an automatic electronic calculating machine that processes
or
manipulates a given data according to a program or set of instructions and gives a desired
output.”

Parts Of A Computer:

The computer is composed of two parts:
1) Hardware
2) Software
1) Hardware:

All physical components of computer, which can be touched, measured, have weight and occupy space, are collectively called computer hardware viz;

i) Keyboard
ii) Mouse
iii) Joy stick
iv) Scanners
v) Monitor
vi) Printer
vii) Central Processing unit etc.

2) Software:

Software can be defined as a set of instructions or codes written in a defined manner. In other words softwares are prewritten programs, which control the operations of computer.

OR

All programs and data stored on floppy disk, Hard disk, CD-ROM are collectively called softwares. Examples are;

i) DOS
ii) Window
iii) UNIX
iv) XENIX
v) Linus
vi) Java
vii) MS Office

Devices OR Components Of A Computer:

The computer is a combination of many parts, each of which performs specific task independently. The major devices of a computer are as under.
1) Input Devices The input devices are those devices which send data or information to the Central Processing Unit. The main input devices are:
i) KEYBORD: It is used to enter text. It contains alphabetic, numeric and other keys for entering data.

ii) MOUSE:It is a pointing device. It controls the pointer on the screen.
iii) MICROPHON: It is used to enter voice into the computer.
iv) SCANNER: It reads printed text and graphics and then translates the result into digital form.
v) DIGITAL CAMERA:It is used to take photos.
vi) PC CAMERA: It is used to create movie and to take photos on the computer.

2) OUT PUT DEVICES:

A hardware component used to display information to the user output device.
i) MONITER: It is used to display text, graphics and video output.
ii) PRINTER: It is used to display printed output on paper.
iii) SPEAKER:It is used to hear sound to hear sound music and voice outputs.
3) STORAGE DEVICE:
The hardware components used to store data, instructions and information permanently are called storage devices. For example floppy disk drive, zip drive, hard disk drive, CD-ROM drives etc.

4) COMMUNICATION DEVICES:

It is used to communicate and exchange data, instructions and information with other computers.
For example Modem.
UNITS OF CPU:
• ALU(ARTHMETIC AND LOGICAL UNIT)
ALU is a part of CPU. Actual execution of instructions takes place in this part. All arithmetic and logical operations are performed in ALU. It consists of two units:

1. Arithmetic Unit

It performs basic arithmetic functions such as addition, subtraction, division.
2. Logical Unit It performs logical operations like comparing two data items to find which data item is greater than, equal to, or less than the other.

• CONTROL UNIT

It acts like a supervisor of the computer. It does not execute program instruction by itself. It controls and coordinates all activities of computer system.

• Memory Unit (MU)

It is responsible for storage of data and information. The memory unit consists of two types of memory which are RAM and ROM.

Some Important Definitions And Short Notes:

RAM:

RAM stands for random access memory. It is that part of CPU where temporary information is stored.

Byte:
A group of 8 bits is called a byte.

Icons:
Pictorial objects on the desktop or screen are called Icons.

Mouse:

It is an input device, normally called a ―Pointing device‖. This device is used for pointing anything on monitor through a blinking cursor.

Software:

A set of instructions or codes written in a defined manner or prewritten programs which control the operations of computer.

Control Unit:

A unit of CPU which is responsible for all automatic operations carried out by the digital computers is called CU. The CU directs and coordinates all activities of a computer.

LAN:LAN stands for local area network. It is privately owned communication network that serves users within a confirmed geographical area. The range is usually within a mile-perhaps one office, one building or a group of buildings.

__________________
God has sent us to do something special,Life is once for all but not to be Repeated by a pendulum.

Even brain also concieve things from surrounding not from inside...my question was that what books do you used for this concised notes?

Brother

I have 5 books ok.I have prepared it from them

__________________
God has sent us to do something special,Life is once for all but not to be Repeated by a pendulum.

III -COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

About 55 percent of the blood is composed of a liquid known as plasma. The rest of the blood is made of three major types of cells: red blood cells (also known as erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes).

Plasma

Plasma consists predominantly of water and salts. The kidneys carefully maintain the salt concentration in plasma because small changes in its concentration will cause cells in the body to function improperly. In extreme conditions this can result in seizures, coma, or even death. The pH of plasma, the common measurement of the plasma’s acidity, is also carefully controlled by the kidneys within the neutral range of 6.8 to 7.7. Plasma also contains other small molecules, including vitamins, minerals, nutrients, and waste products. The concentrations of all of these molecules must be carefully regulated.

Plasma is usually yellow in color due to proteins dissolved in it. However, after a person eats a fatty meal, that person’s plasma temporarily develops a milky color as the blood carries the ingested fats from the intestines to other organs of the body.

Plasma carries a large number of important proteins, including albumin, gamma globulin, and clotting factors. Albumin is the main protein in blood. It helps regulate the water content of tissues and blood. Gamma globulin is composed of tens of thousands of unique antibody molecules. Antibodies neutralize or help destroy infectious organisms. Each antibody is designed to target one specific invading organism. For example, chicken pox antibody will target chicken pox virus, but will leave an influenza virus unharmed. Clotting factors, such as fibrinogen, are involved in forming blood clots that seal leaks after an injury. Plasma that has had the clotting factors removed is called serum. Both serum and plasma are easy to store and have many medical uses.

B -Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells make up almost 45 percent of the blood volume. Their primary function is to carry oxygen from the lungs to every cell in the body. Red blood cells are composed predominantly of a protein and iron compound, called hemoglobin, that captures oxygen molecules as the blood moves through the lungs, giving blood its red color. As blood passes through body tissues, hemoglobin then releases the oxygen to cells throughout the body. Red blood cells are so packed with hemoglobin that they lack many components, including a nucleus, found in other cells.

The membrane, or outer layer, of the red blood cell is flexible, like a soap bubble, and is able to bend in many directions without breaking. This is important because the red blood cells must be able to pass through the tiniest blood vessels, the capillaries, to deliver oxygen wherever it is needed. The capillaries are so narrow that the red blood cells, normally shaped like a disk with a concave top and bottom, must bend and twist to maneuver single file through them.

C -Blood Type

There are several types of red blood cells and each person has red blood cells of just one type. Blood type is determined by the occurrence or absence of substances, known as recognition markers or antigens, on the surface of the red blood cell. Type A blood has just marker A on its red blood cells while type B has only marker B. If neither A nor B markers are present, the blood is type O. If both the A and B markers are present, the blood is type AB. Another marker, the Rh antigen (also known as the Rh factor), is present or absent regardless of the presence of A and B markers. If the Rh marker is present, the blood is said to be Rh positive, and if it is absent, the blood is Rh negative. The most common blood type is A positive—that is, blood that has an A marker and also an Rh marker. More than 20 additional red blood cell types have been discovered.

Blood typing is important for many medical reasons. If a person loses a lot of blood, that person may need a blood transfusion to replace some of the lost red blood cells. Since everyone makes antibodies against substances that are foreign, or not of their own body, transfused blood must be matched so as not to contain these substances. For example, a person who is blood type A positive will not make antibodies against the A or Rh markers, but will make antibodies against the B marker, which is not on that person’s own red blood cells. If blood containing the B marker (from types B positive, B negative, AB positive, or AB negative) is transfused into this person, then the transfused red blood cells will be rapidly destroyed by the patient’s anti-B antibodies.

In this case, the transfusion will do the patient no good and may even result in serious harm. For a successful blood transfusion into an A positive blood type individual, blood that is type O negative, O positive, A negative, or A positive is needed because these blood types will not be attacked by the patient’s anti-B antibodies.

D -White Blood Cells

White blood cells only make up about 1 percent of blood, but their small number belies their immense importance. They play a vital role in the body’s immune system—the primary defense mechanism against invading bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. They often accomplish this goal through direct attack, which usually involves identifying the invading organism as foreign, attaching to it, and then destroying it. This process is referred to as phagocytosis.

White blood cells also produce antibodies, which are released into the circulating blood to target and attach to foreign organisms. After attachment, the antibody may neutralize the organism, or it may elicit help from other immune system cells to destroy the foreign substance. There are several varieties of white blood cells, including neutrophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes, all of which interact with one another and with plasma proteins and other cell types to form the complex and highly effective immune system.

E -Platelets and Clotting

The smallest cells in the blood are the platelets, which are designed for a single purpose—to begin the process of coagulation, or forming a clot, whenever a blood vessel is broken. As soon as an artery or vein is injured, the platelets in the area of the injury begin to clump together and stick to the edges of the cut. They also release messengers into the blood that perform a variety of functions: constricting the blood vessels to reduce bleeding, attracting more platelets to the area to enlarge the platelet plug, and initiating the work of plasma-based clotting factors, such as fibrinogen. Through a complex mechanism involving many steps and many clotting factors, the plasma protein fibrinogen is transformed into long, sticky threads of fibrin. Together, the platelets and the fibrin create an intertwined meshwork that forms a stable clot. This self-sealing aspect of the blood is crucial to survival.

__________________
God has sent us to do something special,Life is once for all but not to be Repeated by a pendulum.

Plagiarism detected !

http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css-compu...y-notes-4.html

__________________
Forget safety.Live where you fear to live.Destroy your reputation.Be notorious

Brother these are very old notes...I made these notes very time ago.

I have given these notes..to everyone for help...

__________________
God has sent us to do something special,Life is once for all but not to be Repeated by a pendulum.

Coordinating Systems: The Receptors and Effectors

Receptor cells and organs

The cells and organs that receive internal and external stimuli are called receptors. These receptors vary in complexity from single cells to complex organs. Their function is to receive information from the external and internal environment and to convey that information to the nervous system.One way to classify sensory receptors is to consider them as biological transducers.meaning they take one form of energy and convert it to another. They are constructed to receive certain kinds of stimuli and are categorized by this feature. One can divide them according to their sensitivity to various forms of energy. Thus we have mechanoreceptors that respond to touch, pressure, tension, sound and motion. Photoreceptor respond to light; thermoreceptors respond to heat; pain receptors respond to tissue damage; osmoreceptors that respond to changes in water volume; and chemoreceptors that respond to chemicals and result in taste or smell sensations.

Mechanoreceptors vary greatly. The skin contains specialized mechanoreceptor cells that react to touch and muscles have stretchreceptors. The ear has the ability to process sound waves and to detect acceleration and orientation of the body. It is a very complex receptor organ,has two distinct functions, balance and hearing. Both functions, however,rely on mechanoreception. The sound is transmitted by air pressure changes to the eardrum, the inner ear ossicles (hammer, anvil and stirrup), and finally the oval window of the cochlea. The movement of the oval window causes the fluid inside the cochlea to move and, depending on the frequency of the sound, specialized ciliated cells are stimulated. The inner ear also contains three fluid filled canals (vestibular apparatus) which also contains ciliated cells. The stimulation of these cells signals the adjacent sensory neurons to let us know which direction we are moving and how fast. The senses of taste and smell are both received by chemoreceptors. Both taste and smell require that the chemical stimuli they process are dissolved in fluid. The receptor cells of the tongue and nose are specialized to receive only certain chemicals. Thus the tongue can be mapped to show where sweet, sour, salty and bitter substances are detected.

Chemoreceptors respond to chemical stimuli such as the molecules which give taste and smell. The chemicals are dissolved in fluids and for aquatic animals, taste and smell are the same. The thermoreceptors respond to temperature changes.The photoreceptors respond to light and include our eyes which are image forming. Pain receptors, unlike the other receptors, is often a "raw" nerve ending and does not utilize a specialized receptor cell or organ.

The vertebrate eye is another example of a complex receptor organ. Our eyes are image forming but not all photoreceptors form images. The eye is designed to collect and focus light rays on the retina at the back of the eye. This is where the actual photoreceptor cells, the rods (black and white vision) and cones (color vision) are located.

Whether a receptor is a part of a neuron or in close contact with one, all convert the energy they receive into the electrical energy of the nerve impulse by depolarizing the connecting nerve cell's membrane. They do this by producing a chemical transmitter as a consequence of receiving the external stimulus. This chemical transmitter then depolarizes the next cell in
the chain which is a sensory neuron belonging to the peripheral nervous system. Receptor cells in any of these categories show much variability in structural appearance, location and associations with other cells. They can be single cells, a few cells or an entire organ. As an example, mechanoreceptors detect blood pressure, sound, position or muscle stretch. And these cells may be in special organs or dispersed singly. When stimulated, all receptor cells and organs release a chemical transmitter which depolarizes the adjacent sensory neuron(s). These sensory neurons are part of the peripheral nervous system. If they lead into
the brain, they are cranial nerves or if they lead into the spinal cord, they are spinal nerves. The peripheral nervous system consists of both sensory neurons ending in the brain or spinal cord and motor neurons originating in the brain or spinal cord and going out to effector cells or organs.

Effector Cells and Organs

Those cells and organs that carry out the instructions of the nervous system are the glands and muscles of the body. It seems almost too simple that everything is done by two types of cells and organs! Muscles move our hands to write or play the piano, to put food in our mouths, to talk, to run and dance. The glands are the endocrine glands that produce hormones and
exocrine glands that produce digestive enzymes, gametes, etc.).

__________________
God has sent us to do something special,Life is once for all but not to be Repeated by a pendulum.