Pakistan rupee = 100 paisa
Republic in s Asia. The Islamic Republic of Pakistan divides into the four provinces of Baluchistan, North-West Frontier Province, Punjab and Sind. The mountains of the Hindu Kush extend along the nw border with Afghanistan. In n Pakistan lies the disputed territory of Kashmir. This mountainous region is occupied by Pakistan but claimed by India. It contains the world's second highest-peak, K2, at 8611m (28,251ft), in the Karakoram range. At the foot of the mountains lies Pakistan's capital, Islamabad, and the city of Rawalpindi. The River Indus and its four main tributaries (Jhelum, Beas, Ravi, and Sutlej) drain the Punjab plains. Lahore lies on the border with India. The alluvial plain continues into Sind, which includes Hyderabad and Karachi. Baluchistan is an arid plateau region.
Climate and Vegetation

Most of Pakistan has hot summers and cool winters. Rainfall is sparse, except in the monsoon season (June–October). Forests grow on mountain slopes, but most of Pakistan is covered by dry grassland.
History and Politics

The Indus Valley civilization developed c.4500 years ago. Waves of invaders later entered the area. The Kushans conquered the entire region in the 2nd century ad. Arabs conquered Sind in 712 and introduced Islam. In 1206, Pakistan became part of the Delhi Sultanate. In 1526, the Mogul Empire supplanted the Sultanate and introduced Urdu. In the late 18th century, Ranjit Singh conquered the Punjab and introduced Sikhism.

The early 19th century saw the emergence of the British East India Company as a dominant force. The British conquered Sind (1843), Punjab (1849), and much of Baluchistan in the 1850s. Pathans in the nw resisted subjection, and the British created a separate province in 1901. The dominance of Hindus in British India led to the formation of the Muslim League (1906). In the 1940s, the League's leader, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, gained popular support for the idea of a separate state of Pakistan (Urdu, ‘land of the pure’) in Muslim-majority areas.

British India achieved independence in 1947, and was partitioned into India and Pakistan. The resulting mass migration and communal violence claimed more than 500,000 lives. In 1947, the long-standing war with India over Kashmir began. Jinnah became Pakistan's first governor general. Muslim Pakistan was divided into two parts: East Bengal and West Pakistan, more than 1600km (1000mi) apart. Pakistan faced huge political and administrative problems. In 1955, East Bengal became East Pakistan, and in 1956 Pakistan became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations. General Muhammad Ayub Khan led a military coup in 1958, and established presidential rule in 1960. His dictatorship brought constitutional changes, but failed to satisfy East Pakistan's claim for greater autonomy. The pro-independence Awami League won a landslide victory in the 1970 elections in East Pakistan. In 1971, East Pakistan declared independence as Bangladesh. West Pakistani troops invaded. The ensuing civil war killed hundreds of thousands of people, and millions fled to India. India sent troops to support Bangladesh. West Pakistan was forced to surrender and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto assumed control. In 1977 a military coup, led by General Zia-ul-Haq, deposed Bhutto. In 1978, Zia proclaimed himself president and Bhutto was hanged for murder.

During the 1980s, Pakistan received US aid for providing a safe haven for Mujaheddin fighters in the war in Afghanistan. In 1985, Zia ended martial law. In 1988, Zia dismissed Parliament, but died shortly after in a mysterious plane crash. The Pakistan People's Party (PPP) won the ensuing elections and Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar, became president. Charged with nepotism and corruption, she was removed from office in 1990. The Islamic Democratic Alliance, led by Nawaz Sharif, won the ensuing elections. In 1991, Islamic law gained precedence over civil law. Sharif also faced charges of corruption, and lost the 1993 elections to Benazir Bhutto. In 1994, inspired by a militant campaign for an autonomous Karachi province, civil disorder flared in Sind. Bhutto was again dismissed on corruption charges in 1996. Nawaz Sharif won a landslide victory in 1997 elections. In 1998, Pakistan became the world's seventh nuclear power. In 1999, a military coup, led by General Pervez Musharraf, ousted Sharif. The Commonwealth suspended Pakistan. Musharraf gave support to the US in the war against al-Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan. There is persistent civil disorder in Sind as insurgents struggle for an autonomous province of Karachi.
Economy

Pakistan is a low-income developing country (2000 GDP per capita, US$2000). Pakistan faces a foreign debt of US$21 billion. The economy is based on agriculture, which employs c.47% of the workforce. Pakistan has one of the world's largest irrigation systems. It is the world's third-largest producer of wheat. Other crops include cotton, fruit, rice, and sugar cane. Pakistan produces natural gas and coal, as well as iron ore, chromite, and stone. Major products include clothing and textiles. Small-scale craft industries, such as carpets, are also important.