According to a report from Kathir ibn 'Abdi'llah ibn 'Amr ibn 'Awf, on the authority of his father, who heard it from his grandfather (may Allah be well pleased with him), the latter stated that Allah's Messenger (Allah bless him and give him peace) once said:

“You must follow the exemplary traditional practices [sunan] of those who have gone before you, by treading in their very footsteps. You must take exactly the same course as the one they took, inch by inch, cubit by cubit, span by span, to the extent that if they had ever entered a lizard's lair, you would enter it too.

What happened in the case of the Children of Israel was that they split up, in spite of Moses, into seventy-one sects, each and every one of them in error, apart from one solitary exception, namely the party [firqa] of Islam and their community [jama'a].

Then they split up again, in spite of Jesus, son of Mary, into seventy-two sects, each and every one of them in error apart from one solitary exception, namely the party of Islam and their community.

What will happen next is that you [Muslims] will split up into seventy-three sects, every one of them in error, apart from one solitary exception, namely the party of Islam and their community.”

According to another traditional report, this one transmitted by 'Abd ar-Rahman ibn Jubair ibn Nufair, on the authority of his father, who passed it on from 'Awf ibn Malik al-Ashja'i (may Allah be well pleased with him), the latter said that Allah's Messenger (Allah bless him and give him peace) once said:

“My Community [Umma] will split up into seventy-three sects, and the sect that will cause the greatest mischief for my Community will be the one made up of people who use their own subjective opinion as the standard by which to assess affairs. They will declare what is lawful to be illegal [yuharrimuna'l-halal], and they will legitimize that which is unlawful [yuhalliluna'l-haram]."

We have it on the authority of 'Abdu'llah ibn Zaid that the following words of Allah's Messenger (Allah bless him and give him peace) were reported by 'Abdu'llah ibn 'Umar (may Allah be well pleased with him and with his father):

The Children of Israel split up into seventy-one sects, each and every one of them in the Fire of Hell, apart from one solitary exception. My own Community will eventually split up into seventy-three sects, each and every one of them in the Fire of Hell, apart from one solitary exception.”
When they asked: "Which is that one solitary exception?" He replied (Allah bless him and give him peace):

“Those who are about what I and my Companions are about.”

This splitting up into sects, which was predicted by the Prophet himself (Allah bless him and give him peace), did not occur in his own lifetime, nor yet during the period [covered by the Caliphates] of Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman and 'Ali (may Allah the Exalted be well pleased with them all). It happened only after the lapse of many years and decades, with the passing of the Companions [Sahaba] and the Successors [Tabi'un], the seven jurists [fuqaha'] known as the Jurists of Medina, and the learned scholars ['ulama'] and jurists of the great provincial cities [amsar], generation after generation. As these worthy people died out, true knowledge ['ilm] was taken beyond the reach of all but a very few, a tiny band who were to become the only group saved from damnation [al-firqat an-najiya], and through whom Allah would keep the religion [din] intact. It all turned out just as Allah's Messenger (Allah bless him and give him peace) had said it would, in the words transmitted by way of 'Urwa on the authority of 'Abdu'llah ibn 'Umar (may Allah be well pleased with him and with his father):

"Allah (Exalted is He) will not remove knowledge from the breasts of men after He has given it to them. What He will do instead is take away the learned scholars. Each time He takes away a learned scholar, He will be taking away the knowledge that was in his possession, until the only people left are those who know nothing at all. These people will therefore be in error themselves, and they will also lead others astray."

According to a differently worded version, transmitted by 'Urwa on the authority of his father, it is reported that 'Abdu'llah ibn 'Umar (may Allah be well pleased with him and with his father) once heard Allah's Messenger (Allah bless him and give him peace) say:

“Allah (Exalted is He) will not remove knowledge by snatching it directly away from the people at large, but He will take knowledge away by taking away the learned scholars. Eventually, when there is not a single learned scholar left, the people will accept ignorant men as their leaders. When they are asked to give advice [on questions of Islamic religious law], they will issue pronouncements [aftaw] without knowledge, so they will be in error themselves and they will also lead others astray.”

This next report has been handed down to us from Kathir ibn 'Abdi'llah ibn 'Awf, on the authority of his father, who stated that his grandfather attributed the following words to Allah's Messenger (Allah bless him and give him peace):

“The religion will surely wriggle back home to the Hijaz, just as a snake wriggles home to its lair. Within the Hijaz, the religion will then most certainly take refuge in the inaccessible stronghold at the peak of Mount Arwiya. The religion first appeared as a stranger in exile [gharib], and it will go back to being a stranger in exile once again, so may blessings abound for the strangers in exile [fa-tuba li'l-ghuraba']!"

When someone asked: "Who are the strangers in exile?" he responded by saying (Allah bless him and give him peace):

"Those who will repair the damage done to my exemplary practice [sunnati] by those who come after me.”

In a report that has been handed down to us on the authority of 'Ikrima, Ibn 'Abbas (may Allah be well pleased with him and with his father) is quoted as having said: "Never will there come a period of time in which people do not kill off a traditional practice [sunna] and bring an heretical innovation [bid'a] to life."

We learn from a report transmitted by al-Harith that 'Ali ibn Abi Talib (may Allah be well pleased with him) once said: "Allah's Messenger (Allah bless him and give him peace) had been speaking about disruptive temptations [fitan], so we asked him: 'What is the way of escape from them, O Messenger of Allah?' To this Allah's Messenger (Allah bless him and give him peace) replied:

"he Book of Allah is the Wise Remembrance [adh-Dhikr al-Hakim]. It is the Straight Path [as-Sirat al-Mustaqim]. It is that which tongues do not become confused about. It is that about which the jinn did not stop saying, once they had heard it: "We have indeed heard a marvelous Qur'an!" (72.1). If a person makes it the basis of the doctrine he chooses to profess, that person will be professing the truth, and if a person makes it the basis on which he rests his judgment, that person will be acting justly.'"
In a report from 'Abd ar-Rahman ibn 'Umar, al-'Irbad ibn Sariya (may Allah be well pleased with him) is quoted as having said:

Allah's Messenger (Allah bless him and give him peace) had performed the dawn prayer [salat as-subh] with us, then he had treated us to an eloquent exhortation [maw'iza], which affected us so powerfully that tears streamed from our eyes, our hearts trembled, and our hides were scorched. We felt so moved by it that we said: 'O Messenger of Allah, it seems like the exhortation of one who is about to take his leave!' He responded to this by saying (Allah bless him and give him peace):

"The counsel I bequeath to you is dutiful devotion [taqwa] to Allah, and paying heed and obedience [to your leader], even if he happens to be an Abyssinian slave, for anyone who lives on after me will experience much disharmony.

You must therefore strive to follow my exemplary practice [ sunnati], and the exemplary practice of the rightly guided Caliphs [sunnat al-khulafa' ar-rashidin] after I am gone. You must hold on to it with a very tight grip, and doggedly sink your teeth into it. You must beware of novel fashions [muhdathat al-umur], for every novelty is an heretical innovation [bid'a], and every heretical innovation is a deviation from the right path."

According to a report transmitted on the authority of Abu Huraira (may Allah be well pleased with him), Allah's Messenger (Allah bless him and give him peace) once said:

Whenever a person summons other people to take the path of right guidance, and finds followers, he will be entitled to the same reward as those who follow his lead, though nothing will be subtracted from their rewards. And whenever a person summons other people to take the way of error, and finds followers, he will be subject to the same penalties as those who follow his lead, though nothing will be subtracted from the penalties incurred by them.

The following are the ten basic divisions, from which the seventy-three sects have arisen:

1. The Khawarij.
2. The Shi 'a.
3. The Mu'tazila.
4. The Murji'a.
5. The Mushabbiha.
6. The Jahmiyya.
7. The Zirariyya.
8. The Najjariyya.
9. The Kullabiyya.
10. The People of the Sunna [Ahl as-Sunna].

The People of the Sunna constitute one single group or denomination [ta'ifa]. The Khawarij are subdivided into fifteen sects. The Mu'tazila are made up of six distinct sects. The Murji'a account for twelve sects, and the Shi'a for no fewer than thirty-two. The Jahmiyya, the Najjariyya, the Zirariyya and the Kullabiyya represent only one sect each, while the Mushabbiha are made up of three sects. This gives us the grand total of seventy-three sects, which tallies exactly with the reported statement of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace).

Inevitability of Differences

Differences in the ummah are thus blameworthy, and the differences here are differences in the essentials. There do exist legitimate differences of opinion, which are differences in the peripherals. Abundant examples of these can be found in the jurisprudential verdicts of the great scholars of Ahlus-Sunnah wal-Jama`ah. They all agreed on the fundamentals, but arrived at different verdicts on some finer issues. Such differences are not reprehensible, for the Prophet (May Allah bless Him and grant Him peace) has promised reward to those mujtahids who exert their utmost effort to arrive at a verdict. "When a judge gives a verdict, and tried his hardest (to find the truth), then if he is wrong, he gets a single reward, while if he is correct, he gets two rewards." [Riyad as-Salihin] The objectionable differences are thus those in matters such as Tawhid, reward and reribution, destiny and free-will, pre- ordainement, the names and attributes of Allah, prophethood,, justice and other such issues which the Saved Group, Ahlus-Sunnah wal-Jama`ah, have concurred upon.

Early Disagreements

Differences in the ummah arose very soon after the death of the Prophet (May Allah bless Him and grant Him peace). Up to that time, the ummah was united in both fundamentals and peripherals, for they had direct recourse to the Prophet (May Allah bless Him and grant Him peace) himself to resolve any disagreements which occurred. The first difference occurred at the time of the Prophet's (May Allah bless Him and grant Him peace) death. Some people thought that he had not died, but that Allah had raised him up, just as He raised up Jesus. The difference was allayed by Abu Bakr, who recited to people the verse (meaning), "You shall die, and they shall die." [Zumar:30] and told them, "Whoever was worshipping Muhammad, then Muhammad has died, and whoever was worshipping the Lord of Muhammad, then He is living and does not die."

Then, they differed regarding where the Prophet (May Allah bless Him and grant Him peace) should be buried. The people of Makkah wanted to take him back to Makkah, since that had been the place of his birth and appointment to prophethood, as well the location of his ancestor Isma`il's grave, and the qiblah. The people of Madinah wanted to bury Him in Madinah itself, since it was the destination of his migration and the home of his Helpers (the Ansar). Others thought he should be taken to Jerusalem and buried there next to his forefather Abraham (peace be upon Him). Once more, it was Abu Bakr who solved the problem. He narrated the hadith, "The Prophets are buried where they die." Thus, they buried him in his room in Madinah.

The next difference was with regard to leadership. The Ansar wanted to pledge allegiance to Sa`d ibn `Ubadah al-Khazraji, while the Quraysh said that leadership must come from the Quraish. The Ansar submitted when they were related the hadith, "The leaders are from Quraish." Next, they differed regarding inheritance of the land of Fadak. This was a piece of land which the Prophet had acquired as a form of booty, and which he retained during his lifetime. When He passed away, `Ali (May Allah be pleased with Him) said that the Prophet (May Allah bless Him and grant Him peace) had assigned it to Fatimah (May Allah be pleased with Her) during his lifetime. Al-`Abbas denied this. Once more, it was Abu Bakr who passed judgment, ruling that it could not be inherited because of the hadith, "The Prophets do not leave behind inheritance." Later, after the death of Abu Bakr (May Allah be pleased with Him), `Umar allowed al-`Abbas and `Ali to supervise the land, but not to own it.

The early Muslims differed also over the course of action against those people who refused to pay Zakat. Abu Bakr was in favor of fighting them until they payed it. `Umar disagreed, citing the hadith, "I have been ordered to fight people until they testify that there is no god but Allah, and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah, and [until] they establish salah and give zakat. Then, if they do that, they have secured their lives and their property from me, except in the cause of Islamic justice, and their reckoning is with Allah, the Mighty, the Majestic." He proposed that these people's lives were sacrosanct because they had said "La ilaha illallah." Abu Bakr responded, "I will surely fight against those who make a distinction between salah and zakat." Eventually, `Umar also came around to see the truth in Abu Bakr's position.

After this, the Companions were busy fighting Tulayhah ibn Khuwaylid al-Asadi, who had apostatized, but who later returned to Islam in the time of `Umar. He repented, and witnessed the battles of Qadisiyyah, and of Nahawand, where he was martyred, May Allah be pleased with Him. They also fought Musaylimah, the Liar, Sajah bint al-Harith and Aswad ibn Zayd al-`Ansi, who all laid claim to Prophethood, as well as all the rest of the Arabs who apostatized after the Prophet's (May Allah bless Him and grant Him peace) death.

After this, they fought the Romans and the Persians. They won these conquests, and at this time were still united in issues of `aqidah. They differed only in peripheral issues of fiqh, such as the inheritance of a grandmother. Matters continued in this manner throughout the reigns of Abu Bakr and `Umar, and for six years of `Uthman's reign. At this point, some people disagreed with some aspects of `Uthman, on account of which they came to murder him. After his assassination, they disagreed over what should be the fate of his murderers. Ali (May Allah be pleased with Him) was of the opinion that the Caliphate should be reestablished before bringing the murderers to justice, since law and order and stability have a higher priority. Mu`awiyah (May Allah be pleased with Him) thought that the people who had committed such a heinous crime as murdering the Caliph should be brought to justice immediately, and that the current Caliph's (i.e. Ali's) permission was not needed, because Allah has said, (meaning), "Whoever is killed unjustly, We have given authority to his representative." Both of them were qualified mujtahids, and they were fighting on the basis of the resulting disagreement, and so we do not criticize either of them, although Ali was correct. Several prominent Sahabah were on both sides. For example, `A'ishah, Talhah and Zubayr were initially on the side of Mu`awiyah. Others, such as `Abdullah ibn `Umar, chose to remain neutral. Some people at the time condemned one or both groups. Two battles, the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Siffin were fought. Abu Musa al-Ash`ari and `Amr ibn al-Aas were then appointed as judges, and people differed in their position towards them also. The Khawarij believed that Mu`awiyah (May Allah be pleased with Him) had committed kufr by fighting against the Caliph, and that `Ali (May Allah be pleased with Him) had also committed kufr by agreeing to an arbitration. They were a strictly religious group who believed that any sin was kufr.

The Khawarij are known by several names and nicknames. They came to be called the Khawarij ["the Seceders" or "the Rebels"] because of their rebellion [khuruj] against 'Ali ibn Abi Talib (may Allah be well pleased with him).

They have been called the Hukmiyya, because of their refusal to accept the authority of the two arbitrators [hakamain], Abu Musa al-Ash'ari and 'Amr ibn al-'As (may Allah be well pleased with them both), and because of their war cry: "The decision belongs to Allah alone [la hukma illa li'llah]; the two arbitrators have no power to decide!"

They have also been called the Haruriyya, because they set up camp in Harura', which is a place [not far from Kufa].

Yet another name that has been given to them is "the Vendors" [Shurat], because of their assertion: "We have sold our own selves for the sake of Allah's cause [sharaina anfusana fi'llah]," or in other words: "We have traded them in exchange for Allah's spiritual reward and His good pleasure."

They are sometimes referred to as "the Defectors" [Mariqa], because of their defection [muruq] from the religion [din]. They were actually described by the Prophet himself (Allah bless him and give him peace) as people who would swerve away from the religion, just as the [hunter's] arrow may swerve away from the animal target, and who would not come back to the fold. Such indeed are they, for they have swerved away from the religion and from Islam. They have separated themselves off from the religious community [milla], breaking loose from it and from the loyal congregation [jama'a]. They have gone astray from the level course of right guidance and from the true path [sabil].

They have withdrawn their allegiance from the ruling authority [sultan], and they have unsheathed the sword against the rightful leaders [a'imma], whose blood they consider it permissible to shed, and whose property they consider it lawful to confiscate. They have branded all who oppose them as unbelievers [kaffaru man khalafahum]. They dare to heap curses on the Companions [Ashab] of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) and on his Helpers [Ansar]. They wash their hands of them, haughtily dismiss them as guilty of unbelief [kufr] and terrible sins ['aza'im], and consider it right and proper to contradict them.

They do not believe in the torment of the tomb ['adhab al-qabr], nor in the Basin [Hawd], nor in the right of intercession [shafa'a]. They offer no one any prospect of deliverance from the Fire of Hell, and they profess the doctrine that if someone tells a single lie, or commits a sin of any kind, whether it be trivial or serious, and if he then dies without repentance, that person will be counted as an unbeliever [kafir], and will be condemned to remain in the Fire of Hell for all eternity.

They do not regard the congregational prayer [jama'a] as valid unless it is performed behind their own Imam, but they do regard it as valid to postpone the ritual prayer [salat] beyond its prescribed time, to begin the fast [sawm] before the sighting of the new moon [of the month of Ramadan], and to break the fast [fitr] in like manner [before the end of Ramadan has been established by the sighting of the new moon of Shawwal]. They also admit the validity of a marriage contracted without the participation of a marriage guardian [wali]. They accept as lawful [halal] the practice of temporary marriage [mut'a] and transactions of the type in which one dirham [silver coin] is exchanged immediately for two dirhams.

They do not regard it as valid to perform the ritual prayer [salat] while wearing leather slippers/socks [khifaf], nor do they accept the practice of wiping [mash] over these [instead of removing them in order to wash the bare feet].

They do not regard the Sultan as having any right to obedience, nor do they accept the claim of [the tribe of] Quraish to the Caliphate.

The areas in which the Khawarij are to be found in the most considerable numbers are: Mesopotamia, 'Uman, Mawsil, Hadramawt, and the provincial districts inhabited mainly by the Arabs.

The names of the authors who have composed their textbooks for them are: 'Abd ibn Zaid, Muhammad ibn Harb, Yahya ibn Kamil, and Sa'id ibn Harun.


The Khawarij are subdivided into fifteen distinct sects:

1. The Najadat, whose name can be traced to Najda ibn 'Amir al-Hanafi, [one-time conqueror of the Arabian province] of al-Yamama. They are the followers of 'Abdu'llah ibn Nasir. They propounded the doctrine that if a person tells a lie or commits a minor sin, and makes a habit of it, he must be considered a polytheist [mushrik], although a person can still be considered a Muslim even if he commits adultery or fornication, steals, and drinks wine, as long as he does not persist in these offenses. They also maintained that there is no need for an Imam, since what is necessary is knowledge of the Book of Allah, and that alone is quite sufficient.

2. The Azariqa, so called because they are the followers of Nafi' ibn al-Azraq. They maintained that every major sin is tantamount to unbelief [kufr], that the residence of the Caliph is the residence of unbelief, and that Abu Musa and 'Amr ibn al-'As (may Allah be well pleased with them both) were guilty of not believing in Allah, when 'Ali (may Allah be well pleased with him) appointed them to arbitrate between himself and Mu'awiya (may Allah be well pleased with him) for the sake of giving consideration to the best interests of the community at large.

The Azariqa also consider it permissible to kill young children, meaning the offspring of those who attribute partners to Allah [awlad al-mushrikin]. They regard as unlawful [the punishment of a convicted adulterer by] stoning to death [rajm]. They do not impose the legal penalty [of eighty lashes] on a person guilty of slandering a respectable male [qadhif al-muhsan], although they do impose that penalty on one who is guilty of slandering a respectable female [qadhif al-muhsana].

3. The Fudakiyya, historically related to Ibn Fudaik.

4. The 'Atawiyya, who can be traced back to 'Atiyya ibn al-Aswad.

5. The 'Ajarida, historically related to 'Abd ar-Rahman ibn 'Ajrad. They actually represent a composite grouping of many sub-sects, collectively known as the Maimuniyya. They consider it permissible for a man to marry the daughters of his sons and the daughters of his daughters, as well as the daughters of his brothers and the daughters of his sisters. They also maintain that the chapter entitled "Joseph" [Surat Yusuf] is not really part of the Qur'an.

6. The Jazimiyya. Peculiar to this sect is the doctrine that friendliness [walaya] and hostility ['adawa] are a pair of attributes applicable to His Essence (Exalted is He). The Jazimiyya can otherwise be regarded as a branch of the Ma'lumiyya, since they maintain that anyone who does not know Allah by His Names is an ignorant person. They refuse to accept the doctrine that actions [af 'al] belong to Allah (Exalted is He) in terms of creation, and that the ability to act is brought into being simultaneously with the action itself [al-istita'a ma'a'l-fi'l].

7. The Majhuliyya, who constitute one of the fifteen basic groups [of the Khawarij]. They are proponents of the doctrine that if someone knows Allah by at least some of His Names, he is to be considered as having knowledge ['alim] of Him, not as a totally ignorant person [jahil].

8. The Saltiyya, who are historically related to 'Uthman ibn as-Salt. They maintain that if a person has an infant child at the time when he responds to our call and embraces Islam, that child cannot be regarded as a Muslim until he reaches the age of puberty, at which time he must be invited to enter Islam and must accept the invitation on his own behalf.

9. The Akhnasiyya, who trace the origin of their name to a man called al-Akhnas. They hold the opinion that the slave-owner may take for himself part of the alms [zakat] due to his slave, and pass on to him only part of his alms, if he [the slave-owner] is needy and impoverished.

10. The Zafariyya.

11. The Hafsiyya, a sectarian group [ta'ifa] that branched off from the Zafariyya. They maintain that as long as a person acknowledges Allah, he cannot be considered guilty of polytheism or idolatry [shirk], even if he does not believe in anything else in the religion apart from Him, such as a Messenger [Rasul], a Garden of Paradise and a Fire of Hell, even if he perpetrates all the most heinous crimes, such as homicide, and even if he regards it as lawful to commit adultery and fornication [zina]. According to them, a person can be considered guilty of shirk only if he is ignorant of Allah and refuses to recognize His existence, and on no other grounds at all.

They also maintain that the "one lured to bewilderment [hairan]," who is mentioned by Allah (Exalted is He) in the Qur'an, is none other than 'Ali, along with his party and his companions, "who call him to guidance, [saying]: 'Come to us!'"

These are the people [who fought against 'Ali (may Allah be well pleased with him) in the battle] of Nahrawan.

12. The Ibadiyya [or Abadiyya]. They maintain that every religious duty which Allah (Exalted is He) has made incumbent upon His creatures must be treated as an article of faith [iman], and that every major sin is an instance of ingratitude for divine blessings [kufr ni'ma], not of polytheistic misbelief [kufr shirk]. Remnants of them can be found to this day in Oman and North Africa.

13. The Bahnasiyya, historically related to Abu Bahnas, have adopted a doctrine peculiar to themselves, since they maintain a man cannot be considered a Muslim until he knows everything that Allah has made lawful to him, and everything that He has made unlawful to him, specifically and personally.

There are some among the Bahnasiyya who say that if a person commits a sinful offense, he should not be treated as an unbeliever until he has been arraigned before the Sultan, so that the latter may impose upon him the penalty [prescribed by the sacred law for his particular offense], and that only then should he be convicted of unbelief [kufr].

14. The Shimrakhiyya trace the origin of their name to 'Abdu'llah ibn ash-Shimrakh, who declared that the killing of one's own parents is a lawful act [halal]. At the time when he made this assertion, however, he was under duress or threat of injury [fi dar at-taqiyya], so the Khawarij were able to wash their hands of him.

15. The Bida'iyya. Their doctrines generally coincide with those of the Azariqa. Peculiar to them alone, however, is the assertion that the ritual prayer [salat] should consist of only two cycles [rak'atan] not only in the morning, but also in the evening, on the strength of [their interpretation of] the words of Allah (Exalted is He):
And perform the prayer at the two ends of the day and in some watches of the night; surely the good deeds will drive away the evil deeds. (11:114)

They are in agreement with the Azariqa on the permissibility of taking women captives from among the unbelievers [kuffar], and of killing their infant children inadvertently, on the strength of [their interpretation of] the words of Allah (Exalted is He):

[And Noah said: "My Lord,] do not leave upon the earth even one of the unbelievers." (71:26)

All the sects of the Khawarij are in full accord when it comes to holding 'Ali guilty of unbelief [kufr] on account of his decision to resort to the appointment of arbitrators [tahkim]. They are also in unanimous agreement on the imputation of unbelief to the perpetrator of a major sin [kufr murtakib kabira], with the exception of the Najadat, who do not subscribe to this doctrine.

__________________
The Me you have always known, the Me that's a stranger still.

As for the Shi'a, they are also known by several other names, including ar-Rafida [the Deserters or Rebels], al-Ghaliya [the Extremists] and at-Tayyara [the Flighty or Volatile Ones]. They came to be called the Shi'a [the Partisans] for the simple reason that they rallied to support [shayya'at] the cause of 'Ali (may Allah be well pleased with him), and considered him superior to all the rest of the Companions [of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace)].

The Rafidah

Rawafid is a term often used to denote those who show great love for the Household of the Prophet, and in this light Imam Shafi`i said, "If being Rafidi is loving the Household of Muhammad Then let all mankind and jinn testify that I am Rafidi." However, it is usually used with negative connotations. The Rafida were so called because of their rejection [rafd] of the majority of the Companions, and their refusal to accept the Imamate of Abu Bakr and 'Umar (may Allah be well pleased with them both). According to some, however, they were called ar-Rawafid [the Deserters] because they deserted Zaid ibn 'Ali, when he accepted the authority of Abu Bakr and 'Umar (may Allah be well pleased with them both) and declared himself in favor of their Imamate. Zaid said [of his former supporters]: "They have deserted me [rafaduni]," and so they came to be known as deserters [rafida].

The Saba'iyyah

A sect of the Rawafid, emerged in the time of `Ali and told `Ali he was God. `Ali (May Allah be pleased with Him) burned some of them to death as a result.

Later, the Rawafid split into four groups:

1. The Zaydis

Some people asked Imam Zayd ibn `Ali to disavow Abu Bakr and `Umar. He would not do so, and some people refused his decision, and deserted him, thereby becoming known as Rawafid, which means the Refusers. Those who stayed with him became known as the Zaydis, and so they are technically not of the Rawafid. The Zaydis split into three groups:

• Jarudis
• Sulaymanis
• Butris.

They all agreed on the leadership of Imam Zayd ibn `Ali ibn al-Husayn when he revolted at the time of Hisham ibn `Abdul-Malik. They are the closest of the Shi`ah to Ahlus-Sunnah; they merely maintain that `Ali had more right to the Caliphate, but they do not claim that he was explicitly appointed as Caliph by the Prophet (may Allah bless him and his Household and grant them peace), and hence they accept the Caliphates of Abu Bakr, `Umar and `Uthman.

2. Kisanis

The Kisanis split into two groups: one claimed that Muhammad ibn Hanafiyyah, a son of `Ali, is still alive and that he is the Mahdi; the other group say he died and passed on the leadership.

3. Imamis

4. Ghulah (Exaggerators)

The exaggerators are not Muslims. The Imamis and exaggerators split into fifteen groups, among which are the Ja`faris / Ithna `Asharis (Twelvers) and the Isma`ilis. The exaggerators claimed divinity for their Imams, permitted all sorts of haram things, and in short dismissed the obligations of shari`ah.

Qat'iyya [Positivists]:

They are so called because of their positive certainty [qat'] concerning the death of Musa ibn Ja'far.

Ghaliya [Extremists]:

So called because of their excessively fanatical devotion [ghuluww] to 'Ali (may Allah be well pleased with him), and due to the fact that they improperly ascribed to him certain attributes of Lordship [rububiyya] and Prophethood [nubuwwa].

The names of the authors who compiled their textbooks are: Hisham ibn Hakam, 'Ali ibn Mansur, Abu'l-Ahwas, al-Husain ibn Sa'id, al-Fadl ibn Shadhan, Abu 'Isa al-Warraq, Ibn ar-Rawandi and al-Maniji. Their most numerous concentrations are to be found in the cities of Qum and Qashan [in Iran] and in the districts of Idris and Kufa [in 'Iraq].

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The Me you have always known, the Me that's a stranger still.

[Ed. Qadariyya are not to be confused with the Sufi order of the Qadiriyya].

The Mu'tazila [Separatists] came to be so called on account of their separation [i'tizal] from the truth, or, as some prefer to put it, because of their separation from the generally accepted doctrines [aqawil] of the Muslims. This separation came about in the following circumstances:

The members of the Muslim community were in disagreement over the question of how to classify a person who has committed a major sin [kabira]. Some of them said: "Such people are believers [mu'minun], to the extent of the faith [iman] they still possess." There were also some among them who said: "No, they are unbelievers [kafirun]." Then along came Wasil ibn 'Ata' with a third opinion on the issue. He parted company with the Muslims, and separated himself off from the believers, for he said: "Those who commit major sins are neither believers nor unbelievers."

There we have one explanation of how they [as the followers of Wasil ibn 'Ata'] came to be known as the Mu'tazila. According to some, however, they acquired this name on account of their i'tizal [separation in the sense of withdrawal or secession] from the council [majlis] convened by al-Hasan al-Basri (may Allah bestow His mercy upon him). As he walked past them, al-Hasan remarked:

"These people are mu'tazila [a bunch of separatists]," and so it came about that this nickname stuck to them.

They also looked up to 'Amr ibn 'Ubaid as one of their leaders. On a certain occasion, when al-Hasan al-Basri became angry with 'Amr ibn 'Ubaid, and was sharply criticized on that account, he responded by saying: "How dare you rebuke me so harshly for the sake of a such a man? I saw him in a dream, prostrating himself in worship to the sun instead of to Allah!"

As for the Qadariyya, they are so called because of their refusal to acknowledge the foreordainment [qada'] of Allah (Almighty and Glorious is He) and His predestination [qadar] with respect to the sins of disobedience committed by His human servants, and because of their insistence that human beings are themselves the authors of those actions.

With respect to the denial of the divine attributes [nafy as-sifat], the doctrine of the Mu'tazila, the Jahmiyya and the Qadariyya is one and the same. We have already discussed some of their teachings on the subject of religious belief [i'tiqad].

The name of the authors who compiled their textbooks are as follows: Abu'l-Hudhail, Ja'far ibn Harb, al-Khayyat, al-Ka'bi, Abu Hashim, Abu 'Abdi'llah al-Basri, and 'Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad al-Hamadhani.

The majority of the people who adhere to their doctrine are to be found in [the districts of the Iranian province of Khuzistan called] al-'Askar, al-Ahwaz and Jahzam.1

They can be subdivided into six factions, namely:

1. The Hudhaliyya,
2. The Nazzamiyya,
3. The Mu'ammariyya,
4. The Jubba'iyya,
5. The Ka'biyya
6. The Bahshamiyya.

1. The Hudhaliyya,

As for the Hudhaliyya, their shaikh, Abu Hudhail, was idiosyncratic in teaching the following doctrines:

• That Allah does have a kind of knowledge, a kind of power, a kind of hearing and a kind of sight.

• That the Speech of Allah (Exalted is He) is for the most part a product of creation [makhluq], but that one part of it is uncreated [ghair makhluq], namely His saying: "Be!" [kun].

• That Allah (Exalted is He) is not set apart in opposition to His creatures.

• That the scope of Allah's effective power is not unlimited, so the people of the Garden of Paradise may be stranded forever in a state of immobility, while Allah (Exalted is He) is unable to set them in motion, and since they are incapable of making themselves move. It is possible, however, for actions to be performed by the dead, the disabled and the decrepit.

Abu Hudhail rejected the idea that Allah (Exalted is He) has always been All-Hearing [Sami'].

2. The Nazzamiyya,

Their shaikh an-Nazzam used to teach that inanimate bodies [jamadat] are activated by the forces of nature. He used to deny the existence of accidents [a'rad], with the exception of dependent motion [haraka i'timadiyya].

He maintained that the real human being is the spirit [al-insan huwa'r-ruh], and that no one has seen the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace), since all that anyone ever saw was his envelope [zarf], meaning his physical body.

He made a radical break with the general consensus [ijma'], when he declared that if a person deliberately refrains from performing the ritual prayer [salat], even though he is reminded of it, he is not required to make it up later. He actually refused to recognize the infallibility of the general consensus of the Muslim community [umma], and allowed for the possibility that its members might agree to accept an untruth [batil].

He also maintained that faith [iman] is the same thing as unbelief [kufr], and that worshipful obedience [ta'a] is the same thing as sinful disobedience [ma'siya]. He held that the conduct of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) was no different from the conduct of Iblis the accursed, and that the behavior of 'Umar and 'Ali (may Allah be well pleased with them both) was no different from the behavior of al-Hajjaj. His emphasis on this theme, and his insistence on pursuing it, is less inexplicable than it may seem at first sight, because he often used to say: "All animate creatures are one single species [al-hayawan kulluhu jins wahid]."

He asserted that the Qur'an does not represent a miracle [mu'jiz] in its mode of composition. He claimed that Allah (Exalted is He) would not be capable of exposing an infant to the fire, even if he stood on the very brink of Hell, nor of casting him into it.

He was the first to propound the doctrine of unbelief [kufr] among apparently devout Muslims [ahl al-Qibla].

He used to say: "The physical body can be divided up into an infinite number of parts." He also used to say: "There are snakes, scorpions and dung beetles in the Garden of Paradise. As a matter of fact, there are even dogs and pigs in the Garden of Paradise."

3. The Mu'ammariyya,

The Mu'ammariyya take their name from their Shaikh al-Mu'ammar, who used to profess the doctrines of the physicists or natural scientists [ahl at-taba'i']. He carried those teachings to excessive lengths, however, for he went so far as to maintain that Allah (Exalted is He) has created neither any color, nor any flavor, nor any scent, and neither any death nor any life. He held that all of this is the work of the physical body [fi 'l al-jism], functioning in accordance with its nature [bi-tab'ihi].

Al-Mu'ammar also used to profess the doctrine that the Qur'an is the work of the physical bodies, and not the work of Allah. What is more, he refused to accept the idea that Allah (Exalted is He) could be Pre-Existent from All Eternity [Qadim].

May he be doomed to perdition, and may Allah (Exalted is He) keep him far removed from this Community [Umma].

4. The Jubba'iyya,

The Jubba'iyya derive their name from their Shaikh, al-Jubba'i, who violated the Islamic consensus [ijma'] and broke away from it to formulate several doctrines peculiar to himself.

For one thing, he maintained that human beings are creators of their own actions, a conclusion which no one had arrived at before him. He also used to profess the following eccentric teachings:

• That Allah (Exalted is He) is obeying His servants, whenever He does what they wish.

• If someone takes an oath to the effect that he will give his creditor his due on the following day, and if he qualifies this statement by saying, "if Allah wills [in sha'a'llah]," the qualification gives him no advantage, and he will therefore be guilty of perjury if he does not pay up.

• If someone steals the value of five dirhams [silver coins], that person is to be classed as a fasiq [an immoral person; one who falls short of the legal standard of rectitude under Islamic law, and is therefore unacceptable as a witness]. This does not apply, however, if the value of what is stolen is less, even by a tiny amount.

5. The Ka'biyya

They trace their name and origin to a certain Abu'l-Qasim al-Ka'bi, who was a native of Baghdad. He refused to accept that Allah is All-Hearing [Sami '], All-Seeing [Basir], and denied that He exercises any will in reality. According to his teaching, the will [irada] of Allah (Exalted is He) in relation to the action of His servants is the commandment [amr] to perform it, and His will in relation to His own action is His knowledge and the absence of constraint.

Abu'l-Qasim al-Ka'bi also maintained that the entire universe is a composite whole [mala']; that anything that moves is no more than the first layer of the physical bodies; that the human being, even if he were greased with oil and seemed to move along, would not be what was actually in motion, since it would only be the oil that was moving.

He used to profess the doctrine that the Qur'an is muhdath [produced, originated--and therefore not existing from all eternity], but he did not refer to it as makhluq [created].

6. The Bahshamiyya.

The Bahshamiyya, trace their origin to Abu Hashim ibn al- Jubba'i. This Abu Hashim used to maintain that it is possible to conceive of the sane adult [mukallaf] as potentially active [qadir], even though he may be neither performing nor refraining from an action, so Allah (Exalted is He) will punish him for his deed [as if he had actually done it].

Abu Hashim also used to maintain that, if a person repents of all his sins but one, his repentance cannot be regarded as valid, not even with respect to the sins of which he has repented.



The point on which all the various factions of the Mu'tazila are in virtually unanimous agreement is the negation of the divine attributes [sifat] in their entirety. They deny that Allah (Almighty and Glorious is He) has knowledge ['ilm], power [qudra], life [hayat], and the faculties of hearing [sam'] and sight [basar].

They likewise deny the reality of those divine attributes that have been corroborated by traditional report, such as istiwa' [firmly establishing Himself (on the Throne)], nuzul [descending (to the heaven of this lower world)], as well as others that could be mentioned.

They are also in general agreement in professing the following doctrines:

• That the Speech [kalam] of Allah is not eternal, but has been created subsequent to the beginning of time, and that His Will [irada] is likewise a product of creation [muhdatha].

• That He speaks [not directly but] by means of a faculty of speech that He has created in others, and that He wills by means of a will that has been brought into existence for no effective purpose [la fi mahall].

• That He (Exalted is He) may wish for something contrary to that which has been fixed by His own predetermination [yuridu khilafa ma'lumih].

• That He may want from His servants something that will never come to be, while something that He does not wish may actually come into being.

• That He (Exalted is He) is powerless to influence the decisions made by others, and that the very idea of His exercising such influence is really quite absurd.

• That He does not create the actions of His servants, since they themselves, not their Lord, are the creators of those actions.

• That much of the food consumed as nourishment by a human being is not made available to him by the providence of Allah-not, that is, in the case where the food is unlawful [haram], since the only food provided by Allah is that which is lawful [halal], to the exclusion of what is unlawful.

• That a human being may be killed before his appointed time [ajal], and that the killer may cut the life of his victim short, before the moment when he was destined to die.

• That if anyone professing to be a monotheist [muwahhid] is guilty of committing a major sin, even if the offense does not amount to explicit unbelief [kufr], he thereby removes himself from the protection of his faith [iman] and is doomed to abide in the Fire of Hell for all eternity, while all his good deeds are rendered null and void. They even maintain that the intercession [shafa'a] of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) can be of no avail as far as people guilty of major sins [ahl al-kaba'ir] are concerned.

• Most of them deny the reality of the torment of the tomb ['adhab al-qabr].

• They regard it as permissible to rebel against the ruler [sultan] and to withdraw one's obedience from him.

• They reject the idea that a person who has died can receive any benefit through an offering made on his behalf by someone who is still alive, whether it be a prayer of supplication [du'a'] or an act of charity [sadaqa], for they do not believe that the spiritual reward for such an offering could ever reach him.

• They also maintain that Allah (Glory be to Him) did not speak to Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and Muhammad (the blessings of Allah be upon them all), not to Gabriel, not to Michael, not to Israfil, and not to the bearers of the Heavenly Throne [hamalat al-'arsh], nor did He look upon them, just as He does not speak to Iblis and the Jews and Christians.

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The Me you have always known, the Me that's a stranger still.

They have come to be called the Murji'a ["the Postponers"] for the simple reason that they professed the following doctrine:

Provided that an individual, he being a responsible person [mukallaf], makes the statement: "There is no god but Allah; Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah [la ilaha illa'llah; Muhammadun rasulu'llah]," even if he then goes on to commit every possible sin of disobedience, he will definitely not enter the Fire of Hell.

They also maintain that faith [iman] is a matter of words, and does not depend on deeds. According to them, deeds are articles of the sacred law [shara'i'], whereas faith is a verbal statement pure and simple [qawl mujarrad]. They hold the view that people are not distinguished, one as being superior to another, on the basis of faith. They maintain that their faith and the faith of the angels [mala'ika] and the Prophets [anbiya'] is one and the same, without being subject to any increase, diminution or exception. As long as a person declares his faith with his tongue, even if he does not put it into practice, he is therefore a believer [mu'min].

The Murji`ah are those who said that sin is of no detriment to someone who has iman. The most extreme sect among them believed that anyone who says "la ilaha illallah" is guaranteed entry into heaven, even if he does not believe in what he is saying. Some of them also denied destiny, and are therefore considered a sect of the Qadariyyah; while others inclined to the views of Jahm ibn Safwan, in that human beings are under compulsion, and these are therefore considered a sect of the Jahomites.

Al-Qurtubi wrote in his commentary of the verse "Those are a people who have passed away. Theirs is that which they have earned, and yours is that which you earn. And you will not be asked of what they used to do." (2:134):

"Together with a human being’s action was created his ‘capacity to act’ (qudra), through which one comprehends the difference between a deliberate movement and mere reflex (haraka al-ra`sha), for instance. The Jabriyya hold that a human being does not earn anything [by his acts] and that he is like vegetation of which the wind disposes. The Qadariyya and Mu`tazila hold the opposite of these two positions and say that a human being creates his own acts."

In his commentary of the verse "And hold fast, all of you together, to Allah’s rope, and do not separate into factions" (3:103), he wrote:

"The Jabriyya’s twelve sects respectively hold the following beliefs: ‘No act is the doing of human beings. Allah does everything.’ ‘We do perform acts but have no actual capacity (istita`a) of our own to do them; we are like dumb beasts led by a rope.’ ‘Everything has been created, and nothing is created anymore.’ ‘Allah punishes people for His own acts, not theirs.’ ‘Follow whatever comes to your heart, and do what you deem beneficent.’ ‘A human being earns neither reward nor punishment.’ ‘Whoever wishes to act, let him act; the felicitous one is not harmed by his sins, and the wretched one is not helped by his piety.’ ‘Whoever drinks the cup of Allah’s love is no longer obliged to worship with his limbs.’ ‘Whoever loves Allah no longer fears Him, as the lover does not fear his beloved.’ ‘Whoever increases in knowledge is exempted from worshiping in proportion to it.’ ‘The world belongs equally to all human beings. There is no precedence among them in their father Adam’s inheritance.’ ‘Acts proceed from us and we have the capacity to perform them.’ [In contradiction to the first two tenets above.]"

The Jabriyya are identified as the Murji’a themselves in the hadith: "Two groups of my Community have nothing to do with Islam: the Murji’a and the Qadariyya."

Al-Mubarakfuri in his "Tuhfat al-Ahwadhi" (6:302) mentioned the following explanation by al-Tibi:

"The truth is that the Murji’a [in this hadith] are the Jabriyya, who hold that the attribution of an act to a human being is like its attribution to an inanimate object. They were thus named because they ‘postpone’ Allah’s commands and His prohibitions so as not to depend upon them, and so they allow themselves to commit grave sins. They exaggerate [Allah’s Decree] while the Qadariyya neglect [it]. The truth is between the two."

As for the Murji'a ["the Postponers"], their subsects are twelve in number:

1. The Jahmiyya
2. The Salihiyya
3. The Yunusiyya
4. The Shamiriyya
5. The Yunaniyya
6. The Najjariyya
7. The Ghailaniyya
8. The Shabibiyya
9. The Hanafiyya
10. The Mu'adhiyya
11. The Marisiyya
12. The Karramiyya

1. The Jahmiyyah

Also around this time, there merged the Jahmites, who are named after Jahm ibn Safwan. Their beliefs included:

• That Hell is not eternal
• That human beings are under compulsion
• Negation of divine attributes.

Bukhari narrated in the first chapter of his "Khalq Af`al al-`Ibad" that Jahm once came out of his house saying: "Allah is the wind and everything else." Ibn Hajar in the introduction of "Fath al-Bari" defined his sect as: "Those who deny Allah’s attributes which the Book and the Sunna affirm, and who say that the Quran is created." Ibn Kathir states that Jahm’s teacher in Kufa was al-Jaad ibn Dirham, who was the first to say that the Quran was created, and that Jahm’s student was Bishr al-Marisi: "To him [Jahm] are ascribed the Jahmis, who claim that Allah is in every place in His Essence." Ibn ‘Asakir and others traced the genealogy of Jahm’s doctrine thus: Jahm ibn Safwan < Ja`d ibn Dirham < Bayan ibn Sam`an < Talut - the nephew and son-in-law of Labid ibn A`sam, who once cast a spell on the Prophet (saw).

Al-Ash`ari described them as follows:

The Jahmiyya claimed that disbelief in Allah (al-kufr billah) is but ignorance of Allah. This doctrine is attributed to Jahm ibn Safwan. The Jahmiyya claimed that if a person receives knowledge, then disavows it with his tongue, he does not commit disbelief with such a disavowal. They claim that belief (eeman) is indivisible and that its subscribers are all in one-and-the-same category. They claim that belief and disbelief can only be in the heart at the exclusion of any other member of the body ... What Jahm alone said is that Paradise and the Fire shall pass away and become extinct; that belief is only knowledge of Allah and nothing else; that disbelief is but ignorance of Allah and nothing else; that no act is anyone’s doing in reality, other than Allah’s alone, and that it is His doing. [This is the core of the belief of the Jabriyya]. Jahm used to profess the ordering of good and the forbidding of indecency ... He used to say that Allah’s knowledge is brought to be (muhdath). This is what they related from him. He also used to say that the Quran is created and that it must not be said that Allah has always been cognizant of things before they take place. [This is also what the Qadariyya and Mu`tazila professed.]

The Jahmiyya were considered to be disbelievers, and it is related that al-Bukhari said: "I hold as ignorant whoever does not declare the Jahmiyya to be disbelievers." This was also the Hanbali position as shown in many places of Ibn Abi Ya`la’s "Tabaqat al-Hanabila" and the books of `Abd Allah ibn Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Abu Bakr al-Khallal, and `Uthman Abu Sa`id al-Darimi. Ibn Abi Ya`la relates from the Hanbali Abu Muhammad al-Barbahari:

Some of the scholars, among them Ahmad ibn Hanbal, said that the Jahmi is a disbeliever (al-Jahmee kafir), he is not of the People of the Qibla, and his blood is licit to shed. He neither inherits nor is inherited-from. This is because they say that there is no juma prayer, nor congregational (jama`a) prayer, nor `Eid prayer; they say that whoever does not say that the Quran is created is a disbeliever; they consider licit the use of the sword against the Community of the Prophet (saw); they contravene all those who came before them; they investigate people with something which the Prophet (saw) never said, nor any of his Companions (ra); they try to close down mosques, humiliate Islam, and get rid of jihad; they strive toward disunity; they contradict the narrations of the Prophet (saw) and the Companions (ra); they speak on the basis of abrogated (mansukh) texts; they use ambiguous (mutashabih) texts as proofs; they instill doubt in the people concerning their Religion; they argue concerning their Lord [i.e., they deny His Attributes]; they say that there is no punishment in the grave, nor Basin (hawd), nor intercession, and that neither Paradise nor the Fire are yet created; and they deny much of what the Prophet (saw) said.

2. The Salihiyya

The Salihiyya have come to be so called for the simple reason that they profess the theological doctrine of Abu'l-Husain as-Salihi. The latter used to state his doctrine in the following terms: "Faith is knowledge [al-iman huwa'l-ma'rifa], while unbelief is ignorance [wa'l-kufr huwa'l-jahl]." He declared that the threefold repetition of this statement could never constitute unbelief [kufr], even if the only person who ever expressed it should happen to be an unbeliever [kafir]. He also maintained that there is no religious duty ['ibada], with the exception of faith alone.

3. The Yunusiyya

As for the Yunusiyya, their name and origin can be traced to Yunus al-Bari' [the Innocent]. The latter used to state his doctrine in the following terms: "Faith is knowledge, submissive obedience, and love for Allah (Almighty and Glorious is He)." He declared that if any individual was found lacking in any of these virtues, that person must be an unbeliever [kafir].

4. The Shamiriyya

As for the Shamiriyya, their name and origin can be traced to a man called Abu Shamir. The latter used to state his doctrine in the following terms: "Faith is knowledge, and submissive obedience, and love, and the affirmation that He is Unique [Wahid], that there is nothing like unto Him. All of this taken together is what constitutes faith.
Abu Shamir also declared: "I would never refer to someone who had committed a major sin [kabira] as an unrighteous person [fasiq] in the absolute sense. I would always qualify my statement by saying that he is unrighteous in this or that particular respect."

5. The Yunaniyya

As for the Yunaniyya, their name indicates that they can trace their origin to Greece [Yunan]. They maintained that faith is knowledge and the affirmation of belief in Allah and His Messengers, and that if something does not make good sense to the logical mind, one should not do it.

6. The Najjariyya

As for the Najjariyya, their name and origin can be traced to a man called Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn 'Abdi'llah an-Najjar [the Carpenter]. They have stated their doctrine in the following terms: "Faith consists in the acknowledgment of Allah and His Messengers, and of those obligations [fara'id] which have been accepted by general consensus as religious duties prescribed by Him, in humble submission [khudu'] to Him, and in the verbal affirmation of belief." It follows, therefore, that if a case ever arises where a person is found to be ignorant of any element of this creed, and he is confronted with the evidence, but still refuses to affirm the truth of it, that person must be considered an unbeliever [kafir].

7. The Ghailaniyya

As for the Ghailaniyya, their name and origin can be traced to a man called Ghailan [Abu Marwan ad-Dimashqi]. They shared the general views of the Shamiriyya. They also maintained that knowledge of the occurrence of things is necessary [al-'ilm bi-huduth al-ashya' daruri], and that knowledge of the Divine Unity ['ilm at-tawhid] is knowledge transmitted verbally. According to the account provided by Zurqan, Ghailan used to state his doctrine in these terms: "Faith is affirmation of the truth by means of the tongue; in other words, it is the expression of belief [tasdiq]."

8. The Shabibiyya

As for the Shabibiyya, they are the followers of a man called Muhammad ibn [Abi] Shabib [al-Basri]. They professed the doctrine that faith is the acknowledgment of Allah and the recognition of His Uniqueness. They rejected any ascription of human characteristics [tashbih] to Him. Muhammad [ibn Abi Shabib] also maintained that faith [iman] had existed within Iblis, and that he had only become an unbeliever because of his arrogant pride.

9. The Hanafiyya

As far as the Hanafiyya are concerned, they were a group among the followers of Abu Hanifa an-Nu'man ibn Thabit. They professed the doctrine that faith is the recognition and acknowledgment of Allah and His Messenger, and of everything, as a totality, that has come to us from His presence. (According to information supplied by al-Barhuqi in his book entitled Kitab ash-Shajara.)

10. The Mu'adhiyya

As for the Mu'adhiyya, their name and origin can be traced to a man called Mu'adh. The latter used to state his doctrine in the following terms: "If a person is guilty of failure to obey Allah, it may correctly be said of him that he has acted sinfully [fasaqa], but he should not be called a sinner [fasiq]." He also maintained that the sinner [fasiq] is neither the enemy of Allah ['aduwwu'llah] nor the friend of Allah [waliyyu'llah].


11. The Marisiyya

As for the Marisiyya, their name and origin can be traced to a man called Bishr [al-Ghayyath] al-Marisi. They profess the doctrine that faith is the affirmation of belief [al-iman huwa't-tasdiq], and that the affirmation of belief must be made both in the heart and with the tongue. This doctrine was also professed by Ibn ar-Rawandi. He also maintained that prostration [sujud] before the sun does not in itself constitute unbelief [kufr], although it can be construed as a sign of unbelief.

12. The Karaamiyyah

They are the followers of Muhammad Ibn Karaam, who died in 225H. They incline towards tashbeeh and hold the belief of Irjaa. They are further divided into numerous groups.

They professed the doctrine that faith is a matter of verbal affirmation, not an affair of the heart. They maintained that the hypocrites [munafiqun] were in actual fact believers [mu'minun].

Another peculiarity of their teaching is the assertion that the ability to act [istita'a] precedes the action [fi'l], in spite of the fact that the existence of the former occurs simultaneously with the latter. This is in contradiction to the doctrine of the People of the Sunna, according to whom the ability to act is unconditionally simultaneous with the action, and does not precede it.

The majority of the people who adhere to their doctrine are to be found in the East and in the administrative districts of the province of Khurasan.

__________________
The Me you have always known, the Me that's a stranger still.

The Mujassimah are the corporealists or anthropomorphists; those who took the literal meanings of words mentioned in allegorical verses and ahadith, and thus likened Allah to His creation, attributing to Him a body, face, limbs, location, direction, etc. Some of them tried to profess Transcendence by saying that Allah is 'a body not like (created) bodies', while others committed blatant kufr, picturing their Lord as a man.
Ibn `Asakir states in Tabyin Kadhib al-Muftari (p. 150-151): "The Hashwiyya and Mujassima said that Allah is materialized (hallun) over the Throne, that the Throne is His place, and that He sits on it.. . . The Mushabbiha and Hashwiyya said: Descent is the descent of His person (dhat) together with movement (haraka) and displacement (intiqal), and istiwa' is [His] sitting on the Throne and indwelling on top of it."

In his Sharh Mukhtasar Ibn al-Hajib al-Subki describes them thus:

The Hashwiyya are a group who deviated from the right path in their blindness. They take Allah's verses purely in their literal sense (yujrun ayat Allah `ala zahiriha), believing that is their intended meaning (murad). They were named thus because Hasan al-Basri found some of them in his circle (halqa) holding unseemly speech, so he ordered for them to be moved to the bowels or belly (hasha) of the circle. In that sense they are the hashawiyya or 'Visceralists.' It was also said that they were named thus because they are among, or actually are, the mujassima -- those who ascribe a body to Allah. In that sense they are associated to 'stuffing' (hashw) and are called the Hashwiyya or 'Crammers.'

Of note in relation to the above literal elucidations of the name Hashwiyya is the explanation of the divine Attribute al-Samad, "The Everlasting Sovereign" given by several imams of tafsir and major Tabi`in as al-ladhi la jawfa lahu or "He who does not possess an inside.” This meaning is mentioned by Bayhaqi.

The following two doctrines are also related from the Hashwiyya:

(a) According to some of the Hashwiyya, the Prophet was a disbeliever (kafir) before his prophethood on the basis of the verses: "Did He not find you wandering and direct you?" (93:7), "Before this, you were among the heedless" (12:3), and "You knew not what the Scripture was, nor what was the Faith" (42:52). This is stated in Fakhr al-Din al-Razi's al-Tafsir al-Kabir under the verses cited. Their claim was rejected by the scholars as there is consensus, apart from the Hashwiyya, whereby the Prophet was made immune to sin (ma`sum) both before and after prophethood in the light of the verse "Your companion errs not, nor is deceived" (53:2). Note that this belief of the Hashwiyya remains a staple of diehard Orientalist historians to the present day.

(b) The Hashwiyya hold, like Jews and Christians, that it is possible for Prophets to intentionally commit all sorts of major and minor sins after prophethood. Some of them specified "openly," others, "secretly." This claim was also rejected by the vast majority of the scholars (al-jumhur) on the basis of the consensus of the Predecessors (ijma` al-salaf) whereby it is impossible for Prophets to deliberately commit major sins or contemptible minor ones (al-saghuEEra al-khasuEEsa).


Concerning the doctrine of the Anthropomorphists [al-Mushabbiha], we have three subsects to consider:

1. The Hishamiyya trace their name and origin to Hisham ibn al-Hakam, who maintained that Allah (Exalted is He) is a physical body with the dimensions of length, breadth and depth [jism tawil 'arid 'amiq]; a brilliant light [nur sati']; having a definite, measurable quantity [qadr mina'l-aqdar], like a pure ingot; capable of moving and of being at rest, of standing up and of sitting down.

According to a story that has been told about him, he once said: "The best of all measurements would be seven spans."

When someone asked him: "Is your Lord Supreme [A'zam], or One [Ahad]?" he replied: "My Lord is Supreme."

2. The Muqatiliyya trace their name and origin to Muqatil ibn Sulaiman. He is reported as having said that Allah (Exalted is He) is a physical substance; that He is a body [juththa] in the form of a human being-flesh and blood; that He has limbs and organs, such as a head, a tongue and a neck; and yet in all of the above He does not bear any resemblance to things [la yushbihu'l-ashya'], nor do they resemble him.

3. The Wasimiyya.


The point on which all three of these subsects are in unanimous agreement is that Allah (Exalted is He) is a physical body [jism], and that it is impossible to conceive of that which exists [al-mawjud] in anything other than strictly physical terms. They were persuaded to adopt the anthropomorphic doctrine [tashbih] under the influence of the sects known as the Rawafid and the Karramiyya.

The author who compiled their text books was a certain Hisham ibn al-Hakam, whose works include a book on the proof of the reality of the physical body [fi ithbat al-jism].

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The Me you have always known, the Me that's a stranger still.

Jahmiyya, trace their name and origin to Jahm ibn Safwan Abu Muhriz.

Peculiar to Jahm ibn Safwan is the assertion that, although certain effects may appear to be produced by human causation, it is only in a metaphorical sense ['ala'l-majaz] that the origin of such effects can be attributed to the human being, not as a matter of reality [la 'ala'l-haqiqa]. [In other words, to attribute any action to a human being is merely a figure of speech], just as it is when one says: "The date palm grew tall, and the fruit ripened."

He always refused to profess the doctrine that Allah is Cognizant of things prior to their coming into existence ['Alim bi'l-ashya'i qabla kawniha]. He maintained that the Garden of Paradise and the Fire of Hell will eventually cease to exist. He also denied the reality of the [Divine] attributes [sifat].

The theological school [madhhab] founded by Jahm was located in a town called Tirmidh, or, according to some authorities, in Marw. He is the author of a literary work on the negation of the [Divine] attributes. He was put to death by Muslim ibn Ahwad al-Marwani.

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The Me you have always known, the Me that's a stranger still.

As for the Zirariyya, the name and origin of this sect can be traced to a man called Zirar ibn 'Amr.

According to the teaching of Zirar, the physical bodies or substances [ajsam] are accidents assembled as a conglomerate [a'rad mujtami'a]. He also maintained that it is possible for the accidents to be transformed into physical bodies or substances [an tanqaliba'l-a'radu ajsaman]. He taught that the ability to act [istita'a] is part and parcel of the person who is capable of acting [mustati'], and that it exists prior to the action. He rejected the qira'a [manner of recitation, punctuation and vocalization of the text of the Qur'an] of Ibn Mas'ud and Ubayy ibn Ka'b (may Allah be well pleased with them both).

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The Me you have always known, the Me that's a stranger still.

The name and origin of the Najjariyya sect can be traced to a man called al-Husain ibn Muhammad [Abu 'Abdi'llah] an-Najjar.

According to an-Najjar, all activity [fi 'l al-fa 'ilin] is to be predicated of Allah (Exalted is He) as far as the reality is concerned, and of the human being [only in a metaphorical sense].

He always maintained the doctrine of the denial of the Divine attributes [nafy as-sifat]. In fact his teaching on the subject of the denial of the Divine attributes was the same as that of the Mu'tazila, except when it came to the denial of the Divine will [irada], since an-Najjar asserted that the Eternally Pre-Existent One does exercise will on His own behalf [al-Qadim Murid li-nafsih]. [Like the Mu'tazila] he also professed the doctrine of the creation [khalq] of the Qur'an.

According to his teaching, Allah is One who possesses the faculty of will [Murid] in the sense that He can neither be coerced [maqhur] nor compelled by superior force [maghlub]. Allah is One who possesses the faculty of speech [Mutakallim] in the sense that He is not incapable of speech [laisa bi-'ajiz 'ani'l-kalam]. He is unfailingly Generous, in the sense that avarice [bukhl] could never be predicated of Him.

The theological school [madhhab] of an-Najjar has a close affinity with that of Ibn 'Awn and Abu Yusuf ar-Razi. The followers of his school are mostly to be found in Qashan.

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The Me you have always known, the Me that's a stranger still.

The Kullabiyya trace their name and origin to a certain Abu 'Abdi'llah ibn Kullab, who used to profess the doctrine that the attributes [sifat] of Allah are neither pre-existent from all eternity [qadima] nor brought into being in time [muhdatha]. He would always insist: "I do not say that His attributes are He [sifatuhu hiya Huwa], nor that they are other than He [wa la hiya ghairuhu]." They say that Names of Allah are that same as His Attributes. They do not differ between Attributes of Actions of Allah.

According to Abu 'Abdi'llah ibn Kullab, the significance of istiwa' [lit., setting oneself straight, i.e., the expression usually translated: "has firmly established Himself"] is simply the negation of crookedness [i'wijaj]. This refers to the saying of Allah (Exalted is He):

The All-Merciful has firmly established Himself upon the Throne [ar-Rahmanu 'ala'l-'arshi'stawa]. (20:5)

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The Me you have always known, the Me that's a stranger still.