The SENTENCE:
A group of words that gives or conveys complete sense or meaning is known as a sentence. Or
A combination of different words which expresses a meaningful idea is sentence.
It always begins with a Capital letter and ends with a Period/Full Stop,etc.
It can’t be begun with a numeral.

KINDS OF SENTENCES:
Sentences are of five kinds which are as follows:
1) Assertive Sentences: Those which make assertions and statements. Sentences making positive statements are Affirmative while those ones which show negative statements are Negative Sentences.
The Assertive sentences are also called “Declarative Sentences”.
2) Imperative Sentences: Such sort of sentences express commands,requests, advice,orders,etc.
For instance: Don’t waste your precious time. (Advice)
Please, give me a hand in lifting this burden.(Request)
Go out and leave me alone.(Order)
3) Interrogative Sentences: We use these sentences to ask questions.
For instance: Do you know me? What is your name?
4)Exclamatory Sentences: They’re used in order to express some sudden or strong feelings and emotions just like sorrow,joy,surprise,pity,etc.
For instance: What a pretty baby Noor Fatima is!
How gallant Hassaan and Surhan are!
Aha! I qualified my B.A with flying colours.
5) Optative Sentences: They express wish/desire or prayer.
For instance: May you live long!(Prayer)
Oh that I were a king!

Phrase or Fragment: A group of words which gives incomplete idea or sense.It doesn’t contain subject-verb combination.There’re noun,verb,prepositional phrases,etc. For instance: My new car. Will go. On the table.


The Clause: A group of words which doesn’t give complete meaning.Although it has subject and predicate yet it cannot state or convey a meaningful idea.
Principal Clause: It is a sentence comprising subject & predicate and has the ability to give complete sense.It’s also known as “Main Clause or Independent Clause”.
Subordinate Clause: It depends on the main clause to give meaning.It is also called “Dependent Clasuse.
Simple Sentence: It contains just one subject and predicate, i.e. Surhan plays cricket.
Compound Sentence: It consists of two or more main or independent clauses. (For instance: Surhan ate bananas and Noor Fatima ate Apples.) Here, two sentences are used which contain their subject and predicate. They can stand on their own and can be used separately as Surhan ate bananas.
Complex Sentence: It is consisted of one main clause and one or more dependent clauses.(For instance: When Farrukh bought Aas a doll, she became very happy.) This sentence comprises two parts namely dependent and independent clauses.The used dependent clause cannot stand on its own hence it is dependent on the independent clause.

The Subject:The part that names the person or thing we’re talking about. (For instance: Sarwaich is very intelligent.) Here,we’re talking about Sarwaich who is the subject of our talk.

The Predicate: It tells something about the subject. As in the above sentence “is very intelligent is predicate.

The Complement: It does the work of completion.It can be an adjective or a noun phrase.
1)Subjective Complement:Intransitive verbs require complement to describe their subject. Example:I am Farrukh. It is heavy.
2)Objective Complement: Transitive verbs require complement to describe their obj.
for example: Zardari willingly made Gillani PM of PK.

Adverbial: It can be an adverb or a prepositional phrase.It performs the function of an Adverb. For example: i) I definitely love her. ii)Yesterday,I went there. iii)It is on my foot.

The Simple Subject: The subject can either be of one word or more than one.It’s usually of several words .Among these words,there is a chief word which is popularly known as “Subject Word
Or Simple Subject”.
THE WORD CLASSES
Explanation: Words are different.It is upto our usage how we use them in sentences.They are divided into different kinds or classes according to their use,the work they do in a sentence.Therefore, they’re simply referred to as “Parts of Speech or Word-Classes”
There’re usually eight (8) parts of speech.However,some of the grammarians include articles in them.
As far as I am concerned and from the point of my experience and studies of different authentic books of English Grammar,there must be eight word classes not nine; I’ll prefer eight to nine.
1) NOUN 2) PRONOUN 3) ADJECTIVE 4) VERB 5) ADVERB 6) PREPOSITION 7) LINKING WORD OR CONJUNCTION 8) INTERJECTION.

The Noun:
Explanation: i) it is a naming word.
ii) it is the name of a person, place or thing.
iii) it is a word used as a name of a person,place or thing.
Function of a Noun: It can function as,
1) Subject 2) Object 3) After a preposition 4) Complement 5) Possession
Kinds of a Noun: There are five kinds of a Noun:
Common Noun: It is the name of any common person,place or thing, i.e. City,Book,etc.
Proper Noun: It is the name of some particular or specific person or place, i.e. Thul, Farrukh,etc.
Collective Noun: It is the name of a collection of persons or things which is called as one whole.
For instance: Army,Family,etc.
Material Noun: It’s the name of material,i.e. Milk,food,etc.
Abstract Noun: It’s the name of feelings,states,emotions,etc.We canonly think of them are unable to see or touch. For example: Love,Hatred,childhood,Honesty,etc.
The names of arts and sciences are also abstract nouns. > Physics,Biology,Grammar,etc.
Countable & Uncountable Nouns:
Such nouns that can be counted are referred to as “Countable Nouns”. A pen,two pens,three pens,etc.
Such nouns that can not be counted are Non-count or uncountable nouns. Hair,Milk,Water,etc.
Concrete Nouns: Such nouns physically exist and can be seen or touched.They’re opposite to Abstract Nouns.
The Noun Gender: It shows the difference of sex. There’re four genders which are as follows:
Masculine: It refers to a male person or animal.
Feminine: It refers to a female person or animal.
Common: It refers to either a male or a female. Student,Teacher,Doctor,etc
Neuter: It refers to neither a male nor a female. Pen,Book.etc.
The Noun Number: There are two numbers.
i.Singular: It shows just one person or thing.
ii.Plural: It shows more than one person or thing.
The Noun Case: (1)Subjective Case: It’s also called Nominative Case. It is used as a subject Of a verb. Surhan is my sister.
(2) Objective Case: In this case, a noun is used as a object. Surhan beat Aas.
(3) Accusative Case: A noun comes ater a preposition. I gave a pen to Umar.
(4) Possessive Case: A noun shows possession,ownership or authorship.
(5) Vocative Case: When a noun is directly called out as, Noor,Come here.
(6) Causative Case: The case of indirect subject.
The Noun in Apposition: It implies that something that is near or it means “Placing Near”. When one noun follows another to describe it, the noun which follows is said to be in*apposition*to the noun which comes before it.Commas are used after both nouns. For example:
Noor Fatima, my sister, loves me very much.



PRONOUN
Explanation: It means For-a-noun. It is used in place of a noun Or Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. Read the following passage:
“Surhan is my sister.Surhan is six.Surhan studies at Surhan Public School.Surhan is a very intelligent student.Surhan also goes to mosque to recite Holy Quran.” Here the word,Surhan,is coming again and again and the repetition of the word seems very odd.The revelant pronoun,She,will be suitable in place of Surhan.
Kinds of a Pronoun: There are seven kinds.
(1) Personal Pronoun: It stands for the three persons.
a) First Person: The person speaking: I & We.
b) Second Person: The person spoken to: You.
c) Third Person: The person spoken of: He,She,It,They,etc
Note:2nd+3rd +1st Person+ Plural verb: You,he and I are/have,etc.
(1) Subjective Case: I We You He She It They Thou
(2) Objective Case: me us you him her it them thee
(3) Possessive Case: mine ours yours his hers its theirs thine

My,Our,your,etc aren’t pronouns,but they are Possessive Adjectives.They are also called Pronominal Adjectives.
(2) Compound Personal Pronouns: They are formed by adding –self.
a)Reflexive Pronoun: When an acton done by the subject turns back reflects upon the subject is Reflexive pronoun. In short, We can say when the subject and the object are the same persons, is known as “Reflexive Pronoun”, as, He cut herself.
b)Emphatic Pronoun: It is used for the purpose of emphasis.as, I myself saw Qari Fasihuddin.
(3) Demonstrative Pronoun: It is used to point out the subject. This-That-These-Those.
(4) Indefinite Pronoun: It refers to persons & things in general but doesn’t in particular.
Somebody-Something-Everybody someone,etc.
(5) Relative Pronoun: It refers to some nouns going before and it also performs the work of joining two sentences together. i. Which (for Things only)
ii. Who (for People only)
iii. That (for both)
(6) Distributive Pronoun: It refers to persons and things one at a time that is why it is always singular and followed by a singular verb. i. Each of ii. Either of iii. Neither of
(7) Interrogative Pronoun: It can be used to ask questions. Who-What-Which
Type of Questions There are two types:
Yes/No Questions: They are answered by Yes or No. Do you go to school?
Wh-word or Information Questions: They’re asked by using Wh-words. For example: Where does Noor live? What is your name?
Difference b/w Each other & Themselves
1. Surhan and Fatima are laughing at each other.It means that Surhan is laughing at Fatima & Fatima at Surhan.
2.Surhan and Fatima are laughing at themselves. It means that Surhan is laughing at herself while Fatima is laughing at herself.


THE VERB
Explanation: The verb is a word (Part of a speech) used to express an action or state, possession or being. A*verb*is often defined as*a word which shows action or state. The*verb*is the heart of a sentence - every sentence must have a*verb. To Recognize the*verb*is often the most important step in understanding the meaning of a sentence. It can be divided into two categories namely i)Auxiliary Verbs or Auxiliaries ii) Ordinary verbs
Let’s differentiate them thoroughly:

(1)AUXILIARY VERBS: They function as, a)used with ordinary verbs to form tenses.
b)used with progressive/continuous tenses.
c)used with simple tenses to form question & negatives.
They can be divided into further three kinds:
Principal Auxiliaries: i) Be ii) Do iii) Have
Modal Verbs or Modal Auxiliaries: They don’t take s or es and they have different forms like principal auxiliaries. Can,May,etc.
Semi-Modals: Need-Dare and used,etc.

(2) ORDINARY VERBS: They’re of three kinds:
a)Action Verb: It shows an action. Eat-Go-Come-Do (Surhan reads a book)
b)Stative Verb:It shows a state or being. Is-Am-Are (Umar is a student)
c)To Have/Have got: Have or have got = to own or to possess Have-Has (Farrukh has a mobile)
Note: 1) I am a boy. 2) I have a book. Here principal auxiliaries are used as ordinary verbs or main verbs. They are the only verbs in the above sentences; there isn’t other verb.

Finite Verb
Explanation: It changes with the subject. The*finite*forms of a*verb*are the forms where the verb shows*tense,*person*or*singular*plural. For example: I go. She goes. They go.
Infinitive
Explanation: It is the base form of the verb. It is often followed by by to and it never changes with the subject. An infinitive will always begin with to*followed by the simple form of the*verb, like this: To+Verb = infinitive.
Example: She like to eat. I like to eat.

__________________
Man is [a perpetual] Anguish !

Very and Too + adjective

1. The exam is very difficult, but Jim can complete it.
2. The exam is too difficult. Jim can't complete it.
Very difficult = it is difficult but possible for Jim to complete the exam.
Too difficult = It is impossible for Jim to complete the exam.

Remember that Too implies a negative result.

Too + adjective + infinitive

Alex couldn't play basketball because he was too short.
Alex was too short to play basketball.
We are too tired to go to the gym.
Mary was too ill to finish her food.

Too + adjective + for (someone) + infinitive

I can't walk to Valparaiso because it is too far.
Valparaiso is too far for me to walk.
It is too late for me to go out.
The soup is too cold for Tim to eat.
The price of the ticket is too expensive for Mike to fly to Europe.

Enough + noun

Enough (pronounced "enuf")
There was sufficient food for everybody at the party.
There was enough food for everybody at the party.
I had enough money to pay for dinner with my girlfriend.
Is there enough time to finish the test?

Adjective + Enough

Everybody notices her because she is very pretty.
She is pretty enough for everybody to notice her.
My friend lives close enough to my house to walk.
Last summer it was hot enough to go swimming every day.

Enough + infinitive

When she lost her dog, it was enough to make her cry.
He was sick enough to stay home from work today.
I arrived at the airport early enough to make my flight to New York.

__________________
Man is [a perpetual] Anguish !